



FORESTRY IN MINNESOTA 



PUBLISHED BY 



The Minnesota Forestry Association, 



PREPARED BY 



SAMUEL B. GREEN, 



PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURK AND FORESTRY IX THK 



UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, 



1898. 



10,000 COPIES ISSUED, 



THE EAGLE PRINTING CO. 
DELANO. 



FORESTRY IN MINNESOTA 



BY 



SAMUEL B. GREEN, 

PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY IN THB 
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 



PUBLISHED BY 



The Minnesota Forestry Association^ 



1898. 



THE EAGLE PRINTING CO. 
DELANO. 



Officers of the Minnesota State Forestry 
Association. 



^ 



r^ 



PRESIDENT : 

S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis. 



VICE PRESIDENTS : 

WILLIAM SOMEUV^ILLE, Viola. 

ALFRED TERRY, Slatton. 

O. F. BRAND, Faribault. 

R. S. MACKINTOSH, St. Anthony Park. 

J. N. CROSS, Minneapolis. 

ASA PAENE, Carlton. 

O. A„ TH. SOLEM, Halstad. 

SECRETARY : 

GEORGE W. STRAND. Taylors Falls. 

TREASURER : 

R. S. MACKINTOSH. St. Anthony Park. 

EXECUTIYE committee : 

JOHN H. STEV^ENS, Minneapolis. 

WILLIAM R. DOBBYN, Minneapolis. 

J. S. HARRIS, La Crescent. 

H. B. AYRES, Carlton. 

SAMUEL B. GREEN, St. Anthony Park. 




CONTENTS. 
PART I. 

ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Chapter I. The Tree and Tree Growth. 

Chapter II. Forest Influences. 

Chapter III. Tree Planting. 

Chapter IV. Forest Management and Rate of Increase on 
Trees. 

Chapter V. Durability and Fuel Value of Wood. 

Chapter VI. Propagation. 

Chapter VII. Nursery Work. 

Chapter VIII. Injuries to Tree-Growth. 

PART II. 

TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Family Coniferae. Fine Family. 
Pines, Larches, Spruces, Hemlock, Douglas Spruce, Firs, 
Arborvitae and Junipers. 

Family Jvglandaceae. Walnut Family. 
Walnut, Butternut and Hickories. 

Family Salicaceae. Willow Family. 
Willows and Poplars. 

Family Betulaceae. Birch Family. 
Birches, Hop Hornbeam and Blue Beech. 

Family Fagaceae. Oak Family. 
Oaks. 

Family Ulmaceae. Elm Family. 
Elms and Hackberry. 

Family Moraceae. Mulberry Family, 
Mulberries. 

Famih^ Rosaceae. Hose Family. 
Wild Crab, Mountain Ash, Juneberry, Thorns, Wild Plum 
and Wild Cherries. 



Family Leguminosae. Pea Family. 
Honey Locust, Coifee Tree and Locust. 

Famih^ Aceraceae. Maple Family. 
Maples and Box Elder. 

Family Hippocastanaceae. Buckeye Family. 
Horse Chestnut and Ohio Buckeye. 

Famih^ Rhamnaceae. Buckthorn Family, 
Buckthorn. 

Family Tiliaceae. Linden Family. 
Basswood. 

Family Elaeagnaceae. Oleaster Family. 
Russian Olive. 

Famih^ Oleaceae. Olive Family. 
Ashes. 

Family Bignoniaceae. Bignonia Family. 
Oatalpa. 

Family Caprifoliaceae. Honeysuckle Family. 

Sheepberr\^ 

GLOSSARY. 
INDEX. 



PREFACE. 

This book has been prepared especially for the classes in 
forestry in ihe School of Agriculture of the University of 
Minnesota. It is really a compilation of the lectures and 
mimeographed notes that I have found useful in my experience 
in teaching" the elementary principles of forestry. The word 
forestry is here used in the broad sense in which it is often 
used in this section and includes much that, strictly speaking, 
w^ould come under several allied heads. In the use of botani- 
cal names I have followed, so far as possible, those given by Dr. 
George B. Sudworth in his "Nomenclature of the Arborescent 
Flora of the United States," which has been adopted as the 
standard for theAgriculturalColleges and Experiment Stations. 
Otherwise the Index Kewensis has been followed. But where 
these names are different from those commonly used by 
horticulturists in current literature the more familiar term is 
also generally given in brackets. 

I have received many kind suggestions and criticisms 
from Dr. Otto Lugger, St. Anthony Park: Hon. L. R. Moyer, 
Montevideo: and Messrs. John S. Harris, LaCrescent; Clarence 
Wedge, Albert Lea; F. H. Nutter, Minneapolis, and J. M. 
Underwood, Lake City. Professor Conway MacMillan has 
furnished many specimens for drawings. My assistant, Mr. 
W. A. Wheeler, has given much careful attention to the re- 
vision of the manuscript and has corrected many errors that 
would otherwise have crept in. I am especially indebted to 
all these parties who have aided me in this work, and I wish 
to extend my sincere thanks for their interest and kindness. 

The drawings, with few exceptions, have been made 
under my direction by Miss M. M. Cheney. The half-tone 
illustrations are mostly from photographs taken in the division 
of Horticulture at various times. The figure of a fire break 
on the "Grande Dune," is from a print loaned me by Mr. 



John Gifford, of Princeton, New Jersey, and that of cut-over 
timber land, by Mr. H. B. Ayres. 

In the preparation of this book I have freely consulted 
the "Silva of North America,"' (Prof. C. S. Sargent): "Illus- 
trated Flora of the United States," (Britton & Brown); The 
publications of the Division of Forestry of the Department of 
Agriculture: "Baume und Straucher des Waldes," (Hempel 
& Wilhelm); and Flora von Deutschland, Osterreich u. d. 
Schweig, (Prof. Dr. Thome.) 

S. B. G. 
University of Minnesota, 
St. Anthony Park, 

, July 29,'l898. 



ADDITION TO PREFACE. 

By special permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co , of Boston, 
the typical botanical features in plates numbers 3, 13, 14. 15, 21, 
22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44,' 45^ 
46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 55, 57 and 60 have been redrawn from the 
''Silva of North America." For this privilege I am under great 
obligations. ^ g g q 



PART /. 

ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE TREE. 

A tree is a woody plant with a single stem which from 
natural tendencies divides into two or more main branches at 
some distance from the ground and takes on what is commonly 
known as the tree form. 

The most evident parts of a tree are stem ( commonly called 
trunk), branches, twigs, roots, buds, leaves, flowers, fruit 
and seed. 

The Stem, Branches and Roots are made up of inner bark, outer 
bark, sapwood and heartwood. The outer bark, sapwood and 

heartwood are made up of 
concentric circles termed 
annual rings. During each 
period of growth two new 
rings are formed — one on 
the outside of the sap- 
wood and another on the 
inside of the outer bark 
and as we seldom have 
more than one season of 
growth each year but one 
ring is formed on the wood 
in a year; so that by count- 
ing the rings of wood in the 

Figure 1. Cross-Section of Woody Stem — diagram showing (a) outer 
bark, (6) inner bark or bast, (c) cambium, (d, e, f, g and h) annual rings 
of wood, and (i) pith. 

stem we can determine very closely the age of trees. In very 




8 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

rare cases we have two periods of growth in one year, as in 
1894, when the drouth of midsummer ripened up the wood of 
the trees by the first of August and the rains of autumn started 
a new growth, and caused some trees and shrubs to flower in 
October, but such occurrences are very uncommon and the extra 
rings formed are readily detected by their being smaller than 
adjoining rings and less distinctly defined. The age of trees 
could be told by the rings of the outer bark nearly as well as 
by those of the wood were it not for the fact that the outer 
layers of bark fall off as the tree grows older. 

In some experiments the bark of rapidly growing branches 
was, peeled back in the spring for a few inches, the wood 
covered with tin-foil and the bai-k replaced. At the end of the 
season there was found a ring of wood outside of the tin-foil, 
thus showing where the annual gi'owth of the tree was made. 

The Bark covers the w^hole exterior surface of the trunk, 
branches and roots and serves as a protection. It is made 
up of two parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark 
and the inner or live bark. These vary much in appearance 
and thickness on different kinds of trees. For instance, on 
the White Birch the corky layer is pure white, very thin and 
tough while on our White Pine it is very dark brown and 
often an inch or more in thickness and quite brittle. 

The Sapwood is the portion of the wood next to the bark. 
It varies much in thickness in different species and in trees of 
the same species: ihe most rapidly grown trees contain the 
largest amount. It is the most active portion of the wood in 
the growing tree, and contains considerable plant food and 
more water than the heartwood. 

The Heartwood is the wood in the center of the trunk and is 
generally distinguished from the sapwood by its more compact 
structure and darker color, though in some cases it may be 
lighter colored than the sapwood. It is also harder and more 
valuable for fuel, shrinks less in drying, and is more durable 
in contact with the soil than the sapwood. There is very 
little movement of the sap in the heartwood, and it contains 
less water than sapwood. 

The Roots furnish water and nourishment that the plant re- 
ceives from the soil but only the young roots have the power 



THE TREE. 



9 



of taking up the water and plant food; the older roots are 
most useful in holding the tree in place. It is common to 
■classify roots into surface roots and tap roots depending on 
their shape and the depth they go in the ground. Some trees 




Figure 2. Characteristic Root Formation. On the left two Hack- 
berry, on the right two White Birch, each 2-year seedlings from same 
seed bed. The first with a divided tap root, the second without tap 
root. 

have nearly all surface roots, as the Birch and Spruce; others 
have nearly all tap roots which often go to a great depth on 
dry land as those of the Bur Oak, White Oak, Black Walnut 
and Butternut. Most of our trees have a combination of the 
two kinds, as the Maple, Hackberry and Ash. Seedling trees 
of most kinds have a decided tap root when young but in 
many species it ceases to grow downward when a few years 
old. This is true of the Red and Scarlet Oaks which often 
have a tap root extending four feet in depth before the tree 
has attained a corresponding height above ground but after 
about five years large lateral roots develop and the growth 
of the tap root nearly ceases. 

Root growth is relatively less to the extent of ground oc- 
cupied in moist and fertile soil than in dry and poor soil but 
the roots are proportionately more branched. In wet seasons 
the root development is less for a given plant than in dry 
seasons because the roots may get their needed food and water 
from a small area. Nursery trees grown on moist rich land 



10 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

have a more compact root system than those grown on poor 
land. 

At the Minnesota Experiment Station a small Bur Oak 
growing on dry, gravelly soil had a tap root that was evi- 
dently 20 feet long, while on moist fertile clay land in the 
same section such trees probably seldom have tap roots more 
than six feet long. 

Buds are placed regularly on the young branches and are 
said to be either alternate or opposite. When they occur on 
the stump or on roots they are not arranged in any regular 
order. There are two kinds of buds; flower buds which de- 
velop into flowers and fruit, and leaf buds which develop 
into, leaves and branches. These can generally be distin- 
guished from each other by their shape and size and by cut- 
ting through them and noting their construction. Flower 
buds are generally more liable to injury from climatic changes 
than leaf buds. 

The Leaves of our trees vary much in size and shape. They 
are simple when composed of but one piece as the leaves of 
the Oak, Maple and Birch, and compound when composed of 
more than one piece as the leaves of the Locust, Ash and 
Black Walnut. Leaves are made up of a framework filled in 
with cellular tissue and covered with a thin skin. This skin 
has very many small pores in it called stomata, through which 
the plant takes in carbon dioxide from the air and gives off 
oxygen and water. 

All our trees shed at least a part of their leaves each year. 
All the broad leaved trees and the Tamarack shed their en- 
tire foliage yearly while our so-called evergreen trees lose a 
part of their leaves each year. The length of time leaves re- 
main on this latter class of trees varies from two or three 
years, in the case of White Pine growing in very severe loca- 
tions in this section, to perhaps eight years, in the case of 
Red Cedar favorably located. The time that leaves remain 
on the branches m the case of evergreens depends to some ex- 
tent on the location and age of the individual tree. 

The following table gives the approximate length of time 
that leaves of conifers remain on trees in Minnesota: 



THE TREE. 



11 



LENGTH OF TIME THAT LEAVES OF CONIFERS REMAIN ON 
TREES IN MINNESOTA. 



Botanical Name 



Pinus strobus, 

" flexilis, 

** resinosa, 

*' divaricata, 

** ponderosa scopuJorum,.. 

'* sylvestris, 

*' laricio austriaca, 

*' montana pumila, 

Larix lan'cina, 

" europea 

Picea canadensis, 

'* niariana, 

. *' pung-ens 

** engelmanni, 

" excelsa, 

Tsuga canadensis, 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 

Abies balsamea, 

** concolor, 

Thuja occidentalism 

Juniperus virginiana 

" communis, 



Common Name 



White Pine 

Western White Pine 

Norway Pine 

Jack Pine 

Bull Pine 

Scotch Pine 

Austrian Pine 

Dwarf Pine 

Tamarack 

European Larch 

White Spruce 

Black *• 

Blue " 

Engelmann Spruce 
Norway '* 

Hemlock 

Douglas Spruce 

Balsam Fir 

White " 

Arborvitae 

Red Cedar 

Dwarf Juniper 



Year of Falling 



2d and 3d. 

5th and 6th. 

4th and 5th. 

2d and 3d. 

3d and 4th. 

3d. 

4th and 5th. 

5th, 6th and 7th. 

1st winter. 

1st 

4th and 5th. 

4th and 5th. 

6th and 7th. 

5th and 6th. 

5th. 

2d and 3d. 

5th. 

5th. 

5th. 

4th and 5 th. 

5th and 6th. 

5th and 6th. 



Flowers are parts of the plant especially modified for the 
reproduction of the plant by seed. Both sexual organs may 
be located together in the same flower as those of the Bass- 
wood, Mountain Ash and Cherry: or in separate flowers on 
the same plant as those of the Birch, Oak and Black Walnut, 
or they may be separate on entirely different plants as in the 
Willow, Poplar, Box Elder and Ash. 

The Fruit, botanicall3^ defined, is the seed containing area 



12 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

derived from a single flower. As used in nursery practice the 
term is generally applied to seeds having a fleshy covering or 
an adjoining fleshy part. 

The Seed, botanically defined, io the ripened ovule, but as 
the term is used in nursery practice it often includes the ovary 
and other parts that may be attached to it. What is common- 
ly called the seed of Maple, Ash, Elm, Walnut and Basswood 
is really the fruit. 

Distribution of Seeds. The seeds of plants are distributed in 
various ways, the most common of which are (1) by means of 
floats or wings which buoy the seeds up in the air or water 
and (2) by animals. The seeds of Ash, Arbor Vitse. Box 
Elder, Catalpa, Elm, Maple, Pine and Spruce have wings 
which allow them to be blown great distances by the wind, 
especially when they break loose from the upper branches of 
high trees during severe winds. The seeds of the Honey 
Locust are not shed from the pod until after the pod has fallen 
and as the pod is ten inches or more long and spirally twisted 
it may be blown long distances on level ground or snow crust. 
The seeds of the poplars and willows have a cottony float at- 
tachment which buoys them up in the air. In the case of the 
Basswood, the parachute-like bract attached to the seed 
cluster aids in spreading the seeds by carrying them through 
the air or along the snow crust. The seeds of Mountain Ash, 
Wild Black Cherry, Hawthorn and others are largely distri- 
buted by wild animals which eat the fruit and allow the seeds 
to pass through the alimentary canal uninjured or carry off 
the fruit and spit out the seeds. Many seeds or seed vessels 
have bur-like or sticky coats by which they adhere to animals 
and are thus carried considerable distances. Very often 
bodies of water aid in the distribution of seeds since all that 
are spread by the agency of the wind and most of those that 
have fleshy coverings will float on the surface of the water 
and may in this way be scattered. 

Shapes of Trees. Different species of trees naturally develop 
different shapes. Some, like Spruces, Tamarack and Balsam 
have a decided tendency to form a strong stem and to take on 
a conical form in preference to the development of a crown or 
head while others like the Basswood, Oaks, Maples and Box 
Elder develop their crown in preference to their stem. The 



THE GROWTH. 13 

actual shape of trees depends on the space they have to grow 
in, on the soil, situation, and on the age of the trees. Where 
trees have plenty of room to grow, and their natural develop- 
ment is not interfered with, their individual characteristics 
are most apparent. 

TREE GROWTH. 

Assimilation. Plants are made up of various tissues and 
these are formed of numerous cells. The material of which 
the cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is de- 
rived from the carbon dioxide ( carbonic acid ) of the air which 
enters into the leaves and under the action of light, air and 
water is there decomposed; the oxygen is given off and the 
carbon is retained and combined with water obtained from the 
roots, forms starch, sugar, gum and other plant foods. 

This process of food making is called assimilation and 
can be carried on only in the green parts of the plant and in 
these only when exposed to light and air: Hence, foliage, air 
and light at the top are essential prerequisites for tree growth 
and other conditions being favorable, the greater quantity and 
better development of foliage and the more light this foliage 
has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the 
tree grow. 

In general, therefore, the growth of wood may be reduced 
either by the removal of foliage which reduces the working 
surface or by shading which somewhat checks the activity of 
the foliage by hindering light action. 

Transpiration. The flow of sap in trees is not well under- 
stood. In a general way it may be said that the sapwood 
transmits the water from the roots to the leaves where a part 
enters into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant 
and the remainder which is by far the greater part passes off as 
vapor. The amount thus transpired varies greatly with the 
species, age of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of 
light at its disposal, climatic conditions and the condition of 
tree growth. The amount of water transpired is so large in 
comparison to the amount retained in the tree that while an 
acre of forest may store in its trees 1000 pounds of carbon, 15 
or 20 pounds of mineral substances and 5000 pounds of water 



14 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

in a year it may have taken from the soil and given off to the 
air from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water or from one 
quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops. It has 
been estimated that the leaves of deciduous trees transpire 
one-sixth to one-third as much water as an equal surface of 
water. Large deciduous trees undoubtedly give off as much 
as a barrel of water a day in dry summer weather. Conifer- 
ous trees transpire much less water than most deciduous trees; 
frequently not over one-sixth as much. 

Mineral Substances are taken up in small quantities and con- 
sist mostly of lime, magnesia and potash. They are carried 
to il;ie leaves where they are used ( perhaps also on their pas- 
sage through the tree) with a part of the water in food prepar- 
ation. The main part of the mineral substances taken up re- 
mains as the water transpires in the leaves and young twigs 
and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed, and 
when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make 
humus. 

The soil of woodlands is improved from year to year if the 
leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground and 
fire is kept out, since the mineral matters taken up by the tree 
are largely returned to the soil in a more soluble form and 
the amount of humus is increased. For this reason there is 
no need of alternating woodland crops. 

Almost any soil can furnish a sufficient quantity of mineral 
substances for the production of a crop of trees provided it is 
moist and the leaf mould is not removed. Good soils will 
continue to furnish mineral matter in sufficient quantity even 
if a portion of the leaf mould is carried away. If however 
this removal is continued annually for a long period, any but 
exceedingly fertile soils are likely to become exhausted just 
as land on which field crops are grown cannot produce croi3S 
forever without manuring. 

The Yearly Round of Life in a Tree. In the spring the tree 
starts into growth and feeds on the plant food stored up the 
preceding year: the leaves unfold and commence furnishing 
plant food. These two sources of food push the sfrowth along 
very rapidly in the spring and early summer. By the first of 
July the food stored up the previous season is exhausted in 



TREE GROWTH. 15 

many trees and growth is entirely dependent upon the food 
furnished by the leaves. The g-rowth at this time is generally 
much slower than in the spring and as the capacity of the tree 
for building up plant food increases it commences to store up 
starch, sugar and other foods in its cells with which to start 
growth the following spring and the cell walls become thicker 
and firmer. This maturing of the tree is termed the ripening 
of the icood and when completed the tree is ready for winter. 
Our hardiest trees generally ripen their wood early in the 
autumn and then cease growing although probably some food 
is being stored up so long as the leaves remain green on the 
trees. 

Rest Period of Plants. With very few exceptions all plants 
require an occasional rest period for their best development. 
Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by 
being frozen. And even when plants are kept under growing 
conditions the year round they have periods of rest and of ex- 
citement. During the rest period the plants undergo v^ry few 
changes and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during 
mild weather in winter and as evaporation must be going on 
most of the time from twigs and buds, water must be supplied 
from the roots. 

The Amount of Water Lost by Trees in Winter. After many 
careful experiments A. L. Knisely, M. S., concludes that 
a Soft Maple standing 30 or 35 feet high with a trunk 
15 to 18 inches in diameter near the g-round, exposing from 
750 to 800 square feet of bark surface, may lose daily by evap- 
oration from 6 to 7 pounds of water when dormant. An apple 
tree 30 years old and 15 inches in diameter at the base, expos- 
ing from 800 to 1000 square feet of bark surface may lose 
daily while dormant from 10 to 13 pounds of water. These 
figures are from results obtained during winter weather in 
New York where the relative humidity of the air is higher than 
in Minnesota which would lessen evaporation. It is probable 
that during our winters here the evaporation from trees will 
greatly exceed that in New York and that greater evaporation 
is nearly always responsible for some trees being tender here 
and hardy in New York and other places with similar con- 
ditions. 



16 ELEMENTARY FORESTRV. 

We know that in this section after a prolono^ed period of 
severely cold weather, the twigs of Soft Maple, Apple and 
some other trees have a decidedly shrivelled appearance which 
disappears after a few days of mild weather. Soft Maple 
trees standing on dry land will sometime in the spring- appear 
to have been dried out and to have become partly or entirely 
dead. It is probable that during our coldest weather very 
little, if any, moisture can be supplied from the roots which 
may account for this shrivelled condition. 

Second Growth. Sometimes warm, moist weather in late 
autumn will cause trees to start a strong second growth in 
October which draws on the stored plant food and perhaps ex- 
hausts it and winter sets in before the tissues have again be- 
•come hard and stored with food. In such cases trees are 
liable to injury. No characteristic of hardiness is more im- 
portant in plants than that of early maturity of wood. 

One part of the tree may start into growth without regard 
to the conditions of the other parts. For instance, a branch 
brought into a warm room in winter without severing it from 
the tree will grow for some time. Sun scald is probably due 
to the bark on the side most exposed to the sun starting into 
growth very early after which a sudden freeze destroys the 
young cellular tissue. 

SOIL CONDITIONS. 

Water Supply. Water is the most important element in 
soils for tree growth and the greatest attention must be given 
to its conservation and distribution through the soil. Trees 
do not grow to best advantage in very wet or in very dry soil 
although some can live and almost thrive under such unfavor- 
able conditions. There is very little land except in the arid 
region, but that will support some form of tree growth. The 
soil best adapted to all kinds of trees is one that is moderate- 
ly but evenly moist, porous, deep and well drained; yet with 
a subsoil compact enough to transmit the subsoil water from 
below upwards without its being so solid that it cannot be 
easily penetrated by the roots. It does not matter about its 
being stony if it has these qualities. On land that is very wet 
in this section as the muskegs of northern Minnesota w^hich 
are covered with Tamarack and Spruce the trees never get to 



SOIL CONDI nONS. 17 

be of lai*g"e size. In the ease of one Spruce grown on such 
land, 73 years was occupied in growing a tree li inches in 
diameter and a Tamarack under similar conditions formed a 
diameter of only I 1-10 inches in 48 years. We also find that 
growth is extremely slow on very dry land. On very open 
porous land the w^ater sinks quickly out of reach of the roots 
and where the soil is too compact it cannot be penetrated by 
the water or by the roots so that on such soils trees generally 
suffer for moisture a part of the year. 

Relation Between Trees and Soils. The grow^th of trees and the 
kinds growing on land are good though not infallible indexes 
to the value of the soil for agricultural purposes. For in- 
stance, land on which Black Walnut, Hard Maple, Hackberry 
or Hickory grow to large size is of good quality for grasses, 
grains and other agricultural crops w^hile Black Oak is gener- 
ally abundant on dry, gravelly ridges and sandy soil. Where 
White Pine in this section is tlie prevailing tree the land is 
generally of good quality. Norway Pine will endure more 
drouth than the White Pine, outgrows it, and becomes the 
prevailing tree on drier land, while the Jack Pine is the most 
abundant on the very dry sandy lands of Northern Minnesota. 
In the more humid climate of the eastern states the White 
Pine grows on very sandy soils". 

Mechanical Condition of Land in Forests. The agriculturist aims 
to keep the soil porous yet moderately compact that the roots 
may penetrate it easily and the sub-soil w^aters may be readily 
transmitted upwards to the roots of plants. He aims to pre- 
vent the soil from becoming too compact and from the loss of 
water from evaporation by cultivating the surface soil and to 
keep out standing water by drainage. The forest grower can- 
not rely upon such methods because they are too expensive or 
entirely impracticable. He may indeed plow for his first 
planting and cultivate the young trees but after a few years 
cultivation will become impossible and the effects of the first 
preparation will be lost. He must therefore attain his object 
in another way, that is, by mulching the soil. The shading is 
done at first by planting very closely so that the ground may 
be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind. The 
shade should be maintained w^ell throughout the life of the 



18 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

tree even if moi^e planting is necessary to accomplish it, and 
if in later life the trees get thin in the tops or die out, it may 
become necessary to plant underbrush to protect the land. 

Undergrowth in Forests may be rather injurious in preventing 
the proper development of young trees but it is generally very 
beneficial in retarding evaporation from the surface soil, in 
retaining the snow in the spring and in killing- out grass and 
weeds. 

Forest Floor is a term used to indicate the mulch on the 
ground in forests. This is made up of the fallen twigs and leaves 
which remain on the ground where they slowly decay and form 
a cover of rich mould or humus. This protective covering 
serves a most useful purpose; it permits the rain and snow 
waters to penetrate the soil without at the same time making 
it too compact, thus keeping the soil granular so ihat the air 
can enter and in the best condition for conducting water while 
at the same time it prevents washing away of the land and too 
rapid or excessive evaporation from the surface; the humus 
is also an active agent in aiding decomposition of the mineral 
substances in the soil. 

Subsoil. Tree growth is less dependent on the condition of 
the surface soil and more dependent on the subsoil than is the 
growth of agricultural crops. For instance, in the case of 
drifting sand overlyiag a moist subsoil, it has been found that 
where pains is taken to get the young trees started they will often 
do well although such land is poorly adapted to agricultural 
crops. There are many acres of land in Minnesota and Wis- 
consin that have such conditions and they should seldom be 
entirely cleared of trees. 

Washing of Soils. The soils most likely to wash badly are 
those that are fine grained without much adhesive power, such 
as fine sand and some kinds of clays. When, however, such 
soils have a forest growth on them they are protected from 
washing by the forest floor, tree roots and the humus in the 
soil. Soils which contain large quantities of humus do not 
wash much, since the particles of organic matter bind it 
together; thus we find that newly-cleared timber land which 
contains large amounts of humus may not wash much for a 
number of years after the clearing and then commence to wash 



SLOPE AND ASPECT. 19 

very badly. The washing- away then is due to the humus 
having- become used up and there being nothing left to bind 
the soil particles tog-ether. In such cases the application of 
organic matter will help very materially. For this purpose 
manure, straw or other material may be applied or crops like 
clover and the grasses, which leave considerable organic mat- 
ter, may be grown on the land. Crops that leave very little 
humus in the ground, such asnursury stock, which is dag out 
by the roots, are most harmful in exhausting the humus in the 
soil, and land used for this purpose needs heavy manuring 
with stable manure and an occasional seeding down to grass 
or clover. 

Alkali Soils. In the prairie portions and occasionally else- 
where in this section, we have a kind of soil in which there is 
a superabundance of carbonate and sulphate of soda. This 
kind of soil seldom extends over large areas and generally 
occurs in places lower than the surrounding land. In some 
places the alkali occurs in ^such abundance as to coat the 
surface of the soil with a white crust. On such land very few 
agricultural crops or trees grow well. The leaves of the trees 
growing there generally take on a yellowish color and the 
wood does not mature well in the autumn. Such land should 
be drained so that the surface water at least can run olf . In 
this way the alkali can generally be washed out in a few 
years. It is seldom advisable to plant trees on these places, 
but if this seems desirable, as is sometimes the case on prairies, 
the best trees to plant are probably the Cottonwood and White 
Willow. 

EFFECT OF SLOPE AND ASPECT ON TREE GROWTH. 

The slope of the land affords drainage and so affects the 
growth of trees, but trees will grow on any slope, even on 
pricipices if they can find room for their roots and the soil is 
somewhat moist. The direction of the slope usually has a 
very marked effect on the growth of vegetation. This is 
especially the case where high ranges of hills and other local 
conditions modify the climate. 

A Northern Slope receives no full sun light, the sun's rays 
fall obliquely in the morning or toAvard evening according to 
the angle of elevation. The winds it receives in winter are 



20 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

colder than those received by the southern slope, but the few 
winds which strike it durinof the growing- season are notstrong, 
hot or very dry. As the vegetation is a little delayed on a 
northern slope there is less danger from late spring frosts, 
than on a sunnier aspect and as the snow melts slowly there 
is a better chance for its waters to soak into the ground. In 
consequence of these facts trees are less liable to suffer from 
drouth on the same kind of land with a northern than with a 
southern exposure. The trees keep a more regular form and 
growth is more uniform and certain. It will generally be 
found that where timber is cut off from a northern slope 
growth renews itself very quickly, for tree seeds are most likely 
to grow under the conditions found there. 

An Eastern Slope receives the sun in the cool morning hours 
when the temperature and light are moderate. It is not ex- 
posed to our hot, dry winds nor to the intense heat of the sun. 
The soil retains its moisture fairly well and trees make a 
good growth. For trees it ranks next in value to a northern 
slope. 

A Southern Slope receives the most direct rays of the sun, 
and the full force of our hot, dry winds and beating rains 
during the growing season. Consequently vegetation is more 
liable to injury by late spring frosts because of starting 
earlier in the spring than in any other location. The soil is 
most liable to erosion from beating summer rains and dries 
up most quickly after the spring rains. The trees grow irreg- 
ular in form, the seeds seldom start well on southern or 
western slopes and when once cleared tree growth is often dif- 
ficult to renew. As proof of the importance of these con- 
ditions as affecting tree growth we have the commonly ob- 
served fact that the south and west sides of steep hills and 
mountains are more likely to be bare than any others. This 
can be very plainly seen on the bluffs along the Mississippi 
River in Minnesota. 

A Western Slope receives the sun's rays obliquely, but in 
the warmest part of the day and in this section gets the full 
force of our hot dry southwest winds. The effect of such an ex- 
posure on growth is about the same as the southern slope. 



CHAPTER II, 



FOREST INFLUENCES. 



Upon careful observation it will be found that a single 
large spreading tree growing in an open field appreciably 
affects climatic and soil conditions in the following ways: 

(1.) During the day the ground under the tree is pro- 
tected from the sun's rays and is therefore cooler than soil 
not protected. As a result of this protection, the air under 
the tree is cooler than the air in the open and as it is con- 
stantly in circulation tends to cool the air in the immediate 
vicinity of the tree on sunny days. 

( 2. ) At night a tree retards the radiation of heat from 
the ground under it. This tends to equalize ihe temperature 
of not only the soil and air under the tree, but that in the near 
vicinity. Therefore, though a tree may reduce the tempera- 
ture of the soil and air on sunny days or during a short 
period of warm weather, it may, on the other hand, increase 
the temperature at night or during a short period of cool 
weather. For example it may be noticed that vegetables 
growing near trees are frequently uninjured by autumn frosts 
which destroy those growing in the open. 

(3 ) A tree aids in retaining water in the surface soil to 
the leeward by breaking the force of the wind, and thus 
retarding evaporation, for it is known that evaporation 
increases with the rapidity of the air currents. It retains the 
w^ater in the surface soil under the tree by shading the soil 
and thus retarding evaporation. The large amount of water 
which is transpired by a tree is largely drawn from the sub- 
soil and this increases the humidity of the surrounding air 
without drawing on the water of the surface soil. But some 
kinds of trees take up so much of the water from the soil 
as to preclude the growing of crops in such places near them. 

(4.) The leaves that fall to the ground form a mulch 



22 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

which prevents the drying- out of the soil. They check the 
flow of water over the land, thus preventing the washing away 
or compacting of the soil by heavy rains and giving the water 
a better chance to soak into the ground. 

( 5. ) A tree protects from the destructive force of severe 
winds. A single tree or group of trees may seem to have 
little effect on tornadoes, but large groups of trees may possi- 
bly prevent their formation or greatly lessen their violence. 
Protection from severe winds may greatly affect the growing 
of plants, since on accountof the winds many plants that may 
be successfully grown when protected by shelter belts cannot 
be grown on the open prairie. This protection when present 
serves to lessen the fuel necessary to warm dwelling houses 
and also lessens the food eaten by animals. It also keeps the 
surface soil in fields from being blown away. 

In these five principal ways a single tree affects the con- 
ditions of climate and soil in its immediate vicinity. To be 
sure some of them are not so very evident where a single tree 
grows in an open field, but where trees are growing in groups 
or on large tracts of land all of these factors are important 
in modify inof climate and soil conditions and will be referred 
to at greater length. 

INFLUENCE QF FORESTS ON WATER SUPPLIES. 

It is very evident that the proper disposition of water up- 
on the land is the most important factor in the growing of 
crops and it is equally evident that nature's changeful and 
wasteful ways of supplying water to crops are not the best 
ways of so doing, for we know that not only in the arid regions 
but in general wherever irrigation is used. crops are produced 
in greatest abundance and certainty. This once recognized 
then the proper distribution of the available water supplies 
becomes a question of immediate interest. Human effort can, 
to a limited extent, direct the laws of nature that influence 
climate and soil conditions and it becomes necessary that we 
have a clear understanding of the forces that are at work in 
nature in order that we may know where we may or may not 
expect to be successful in directing them. In order that we 
may better understand this subject, I quote the following ex- 
tract on forest influences from the report of the Forestry 



FORESTS AND WATER SUPPLIES. 23 

Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1889, with 
a few changes in the nature of abbreviations: 

"The water capital of the earth may be regarded as con- 
sisting of two parts, the fixed capital and the circulating cap- 
ital. The first is represented not only in the waters on the 
earth but also by that amount of water which remains sus- 
pended in the atmosphere, being part of the original atmos- 
pheric water-masses which, after the rest has fallen to the 
cooled earth, remains suspended and is never precipitated. 

"The circulating water capital is that part which is evap- 
orated from water surfaces, from the soil, from vegetation, 
and which after having temporarily been held by the atmos- 
phere in quantities locally varying according to the varia- 
tions in temperature, is returned again to the earth by precip- 
itation in the form of rain, snow and dew. There it is 
evaporated again, either immediately or after having perco- 
lated through the soil and been retained for a shorter or 
longer time before being returned to the surface, or, without 
such percolation, it runs through open channels to the rivers 
and seas, continually returning in part into the atmosphere 
by evaporation. Practically, then, the total amount of water 
capital remains constant; only one part of it — the circulating 
capital — changes in varying quantities its location, and is of 
interest to us more with reference to its local distribution and 
the channels by which it becomes available for human use and 
vegetation than with reference to its practically unchanged 
total quantity. 

"As to the amount of this circulating water capital we 
have no knowledge; hardly an approximate estimate of the 
amount circulating in any given locality is possible with our 
present means of measurement: for it appears that so unevenly 
is the precipitation distributed that two rain-gauges almost 
side by side will indicate varying amounts, and much of the 
moisture which is condensed and precipitated in dews escapes 
our observation or at least our measurements entirely. Thus 
it occurs tha,t while the amount of water calculated to be dis- 
charged annually by the river Rhone into the sea appears to 
correspond to a rain-fail of 44 inches, the records give only a 
precipitation over its water-shed of 27.6 inches. 



24 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

"We must therefore enter into our discussions acknowl- 
edging ignorance of one of the most important factors, at 
least as to its numerical or quantitive value. 

''The distribution of the circulating water capital is 
influenced by various agencies. The main factor which sets 
the capital afloat is the sun, which, by its heat and the air 
currents caused by it, and by the rotation of the earth, pro- 
duces the evaporation Avhich fills the atmosphere with vapor. 
Anything, therefore, that influences the intensity of insolation, 
the action of the sun. or obstructs the passage of winds, must 
influence the local distribution of the water capital. The 
great cosmic influences which produce the variability of all 
climatic conditions, and therefore also of the circulating 
water capital, are the position of the earth's axis to the sun, 
by which the angle and therefore the heat value of the sun's 
rays vary in diflferent parts of the earth and at different times 
of the year; the distribution of land and water areas, w^hich 
produces a difference of insolation because the water has less 
heat capacity than the land, and which also influences the 
direction of air and sea currents; the configuration of the 
earth, by which the density of the atmosphere is made unequal, 
and in consequence of which differences of insolation and of 
air temperature ai-e induced. Thus we have not only climatic 
zones, but also continental climates and mountain climates in 
opposition to coast climates and plain or valley climates. 

"While this classification of cosmic climates satisfies the 
climatologist. there are many local climates to be found 
within the range of the cosmic, and the local climatic condi- 
tions are those which affect human life and human occupa- 
tions most sensibly. 

"The same causes, different only in degree, which modify 
the cosmic climates, making a classification of the same pos- 
sible, effect further modifications and give rise to local cli- 
mates; these causes are different in the degree of insolation, 
obstruction to air currents, presence of w^ater surfaces, or 
moisture-laden, air-strata. 

"Among the factors w^hich thus modify the cosmic climate 
and help to produce a local climate differing from other local 
climates, the soil-cover and especially the presence of forest 



INFLUENCE UPON PRECIPITATION. 25 

areas is claimed as one that, under certain conditions, is 
potent: and this factor being under the control of human 
agency more than any other possible modifier of climate, must 
therefore be of srreatest interest to us. It is clear from what 
has been stated so far, that the influences of the forest, if any, 
will be due mainly to its action as a cover protecting the soil 
and air ae^ainst insolation and against w^inds. That the nature 
of a cover, its density, thickness, and its proper position has 
everything to do with the amount of protection it affords 
everybody will admit. A mosquito net is a cover, so is a 
linen sheet or a woolen blanket, yet the protection they afford 
is dift'erent in degree and may become practically none. It 
will also be conceded that it makes a great difference whether 
the cover be placed before or behind the wind. Just so with 
the influence of the forest: it makes all the difference w^hether 
w-e have to do with a deciduous or coniferous, a dense or an 
open, a young low or an old high growth, and what position 
it occupies with reference to other climatic elements, especially 
to prevailing w^inds and water surfaces. In the following dis- 
cussions, when the word forest is used, unless differently 
stated, a dense growth of timber is meant. 

"The question of forest influences on water supplies can 
be considered under three heads, namely — influence upon pre- 
cipitation or distribution of atmospheric water: influences up- 
on conservation of available water supplies; influence upon 
the distribution or "run oft"" of these supplies. 

INFLUENCE UPON PRECIPITATION. 

"Whether forest areas are, or are not, capable of appre- 
ciably increasing precipitatation within their limits or on 
neighboring ground is still a matter of dispute, and the com- 
plexity of the elements which must enter into the discussion 
has so far baffled solution based upon definite and strictly 
scientific observation. Yet new evidence is accumulating all 
the time which apparently shows that under certain conditions 
forest areas obtain larger precipitations than open grounds, 
that is, they may increase at least the amount of precipitation 
over their ow^n immediate and near lying areas. 

[In Minnesota popular opinion inclines to the belief that 
there is a close connection between the existence of forests 



26 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

and the rain fall of this section and that with the disappear- 
ance of our forests will come a much more rigorous climate 
and a decrease in rain fall. But the records of the weather 
bureau do not show that there is any connection between the 
two or that there has been any apparent change in the general 
climate, or amount of rainfall due to the removal of our 
forests. The flow of water in most of our rivers and in many 
cases the flow of water from springs and the height of the 
water table in the land have been most seriously affected by 
the removal of our forests and should be regarded as the 
ways by which our water supply is to suffer most severely from 
deforestation. ] 

DISPOSAL OF WATER SUPPLIES. 

"Given a certain amount of precipitation in rain or snow 
over a certain area, the disposal of the water after it has 
fallen, and the influence of the forest-cover on its disposal, 
require our attention. For the sake of convenience w^e can 
divide the elements which need consideration in this discus- 
sion into elements of dissipation, elements of conservation, 
elements of distribution. 

'*The difference in effect between the first two classes of 
elements will give us an idea of the amount of available water 
supply or run off resulting from precipitation, while the third 
class bears upon the methods of distributing the available 
water supply. 

ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 

''Elements of dissipation are those which diminish the 
available water supplies; they are represented in the quantity 
of water which is prevented by interception from reaching the 
ground, in the quantity dissipated by evaporation, in the 
quantity used by plants in their growth, and in that used by 
transpiration during the process of growing. 

"Interception. The amount of rainfall and snow, which is 
prevented by a forest from reaching the soil varies consider- 
ably according to the nature of the precipitation and to the 
kind of trees which form the forest as well as the density and 
age of the growth. 

"A light drizzling rain of short duration may be almost 
entirely intercepted by the foliage and at once returned to the 



ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 27 

atmosphere by evaporation: if. iiowever, the rain continues, 
although fine, the water will run off at last from the foliage 
and along the trunks. 

''Altogether for the rainfall conditions of Austria, Prus- 
sia and Switzerland where measurements have been made, a 
dense forest growth will on the average intercept 23 per cent 
of the precipitation: but if allowance be made for the water 
running down the trunks, this loss is reduced to not more 
than 12 per cent. 

"The amount of interception in the open growths which 
characterize many of our western forest areas would be con- 
siderably smaller, especially as the rains usually fall with 
great force, and much of the precipitation is in the form of 
snow. Although branches and foliage catch a goodly amount 
of this the winds usually shake it down, and consequently but 
very little snow is lost to the ground by interception of the 

foliage. 

"There is also a certain amount of water intercepted by 

the soil cover and held back by the soil itself, which must be 

saturated before any of it can run off or drain away. This 

amount, which is eventually dissipated by evaporation and 

transpiration, depends, of course, upon the nature of the soil 

and its cover, especially upon their capacity to absorb and 

retain water. 

"The water capacity of litter depends upon its nature and 
of course its thickness to a certain degree, but is much greater 
than that of soils. 

"Altogether an appreciable amount of the precipitation 
does not run off' or drain through the forest cover, but is 
retained by it: yet while this is apparently a loss, we shall see 
further on that this moisture retained in the upper strata 
fulfills an important office in checking a much greater loss due 
to evaporation, and thus becomes an element of conservation. 

"Evaporation. The loss by evoporation after the water has 
reached the ground depends in the first place upon the amount 
of direct insolation of the soil, and hence its temperature, 
which again influences the temperature of the air. The nature 
of the soil cover, the relative amount of moisture in the atmos- 
phere, and the circulation of the air are also factors determin- 
ing the rate of evaporation. The importance of evaporation 



28 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

as an element of dissipation may be learned from the experi- 
ments of Prof. T. Russell, Jr., of the U. S. Signal Service, 
made in 1888. We learn from these that the evaporation on 
the western plains and plateaus may. during the year, amount 
to from 50 to 80 inches, nay, in spots, 100 inches, while the 
rainfall (diminishing in reverse ratio) over this area is from 
30 to 12 inches and less.'' 

Thus in Denver where the maximum annual precipitation 
may reach 20 inches the evaporation during one year was 69 
inches. This deficiency of 49 inches naturally must be sup- 
plied by waters coming from the mountains, where the precip- 
itation is large and the evaporation low. (On Pike's Peak 
alone there may be 45.6 minus 26.8 or 18.8 inches to spare. ) 

Evaporation from the soil is dependent upon its covering 
and this is important as the soil in forests is always covered 
with dead branches, leaves, etc. In some experiments which 
were carried on in Germany during the months of July and 
August, 1883, to determine the amount of evaporation from 
.different soils, it was found that from 1000 square centimeters 
of bare ground 5,730 grams of water were evaporated and that 
from the same area of similar soil covered with two inches of 
straw 575 grams were evaporated. This shows that the naked 
soil evaporated more than ten times as much as the covered 
soil. It is evident then that the soil covering has an import- 
ant function in preventing evaporation. 

Wind-Breaking Power of Forests. If the loss by evaporation 
from an open field be compared with that of a forest-covered 
ground, as a matter of course it will be found to be less in 
the latter case, for the shade not only reduces the influence of 
the sun upon the soil, but also keeps the air under its cover 
relatively moister, therefore less capable of absorbing mois- 
ture from the soil by evaporation. In addition, the circu- 
lation of the air is impeded between the trunks, and this in- 
fluence upon available water supply, the wind-breaking power 
of the forest, must be considered as among the most import- 
ant factors of water preservation. Especially is this the case 
on the Western plains and on those Western mountain ranges 
bearing only a scattered tree growth and where, therefore, the 
influence of shade is but nominal. 



ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 29 

"The evaporation under the influence of the wind is de- 
pendent not only on the temperature and dryness of the same, 
but also on its velocity, which being impeded, the rate of 
evaporation is reduced. 

"Interesting- experiments for the purpose of ascertaining 
the changes in the rate of evaporation effected by the velocity 
of the wind were made by Prof. T. Russell. Jr., of the Signal 
Service, in 1887. The result of these experiments (made with 
Piche's hygrometers whirled around on an arm 28 feet in 
length, the results of which were compared with those from a 
tin dish containing 40 cubic centimeters of water exposed un- 
der shelter) show, that with the temperature of the air at 84 
degrees and a relative humidity of 50 per cent, evaporation 
at 5 miles an hour was 2.2 times greater than in a calm: at 10 
miles, 3.8; at 15 miles, 4.9; at 20 miles, 5.7; at 25 miles, 6.1, 
and at 30 miles the wind would evaporate 6.3 times as much 
water as a calm atmosphere of the same temperature and 
humidity. 

"Now, if it is considered that the average velocity of the 
winds which constantly sweep the Western subarid and arid 
plains is from 10 to 15 miles, not rarely attaining a maximum 
of 50 and more miles, the cause of the aridity is not far to 
seek and the function of the timber belt or even simple wind- 
break can be readily appreciated." 

Professor King has found in experiments made in Wis- 
consin that the influence of even a thin stand of woodland on 
the rate of evax^oration was considerable. In one experiment 
made in the month of May the instruments were so placed as 
to measure the evaporation to the leeward of a scant hedge 
row six to eight feet high having in it a few trees twelve feet 
high and many open gaps. It was found that at 300 feet from 
the hedge the evaporation was 30.1 per cent greater than at 20 
feet and at 150 feet it was 7.2 per cent less than at 300 feet. 
The experiment was made during a moist north wind. It is 
sufficiently evident, therefore, that even a thin hedge row ex- 
erts an influence that can readily be measured. In fact the 
presence or absence of protecting belts of trees under thecondi- 
tions often existing on our prairies may make a difference be- 
tween a good and a poor crop. All who are acquainted with 



30 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

our prairie sections know that great damage is often done to 
wheat, corn and other crops by the hot south-west winds which 
we are likely to have during the growing months. In Kansas 
and Nebraska during the summer of 1894 immense tracts of 
corn, fully tasselled out, were killed by such winds. At the 
same time it was noticed that where corn was jjrotected by 
trees or slopes of land or where the humidity of the wind was 
increased by passing over bodies of water or clover fields, 
the injury was greatly lessened. 

'•What the possibilities of evaporation from hot and dry 
winds may be can be learned from statements regarding the 
"Foehn, " which is the hot wind of Switzerland, correspond- 
ing to the ''Chinook" of our western country. 

"The change in temperature from the normal, experienced 

under the influence of the Foehn has been noted as from 28 

degrees to 31 degrees Fahr., and a reduction of relative 

humidity of 58 per cent. A Foehn of twelve hours' duration 

has been known to "eat up"- entirely a snow cover 21 feet 

deep. 

"In Denver a chinook has been known to induce a rise in 

temperature of 57 degrees Fahr. in twenty-four hours (of 

which 36 degrees in five minutes) while the relative humidity 

sank from 100 to 21 per cent. 

"The degree of forest influence upon rate of evaporation 
by breaking the force of* winds is dependent upon the extent 
and density of the forest, and especially on the height .of the 
trees. For according to an elementary law of mechanics the 
influence which breaks the force of the wind is felt at a con- 
siderable elevation above the trees. This can be practically 
demonstrated by passing along a timber plantation on the 
wind-swept plains. Even a thin stand of young trees not 
higher than fi\'e feet will absolutely calm the air within a con- 
siderable distance and height beyond the shelter." 

Prof. King found that an oak grove 12 to 15 feet high 
exerted an appreciable effect in a gentle breeze at a distance 
of 300 feet. In a strong wind the effect of such a grove would 
be felt at a much greater distance to the leeward.- It may 
probably be laid down as a rule that a wind break will afford 
some protection for one rod to the leeward for every foot in 
height. 



ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 31 

"It may not be necessary to state that the damage done to 
crops by the cold, dry winter winds is mainly due to rapid 
evaporation and that plants are liable to suffer as much by 
winter drouth as by summer drought. 

"This is certain that since summer and winter drouth 
drouth that is, rapid evaporation due to continuous dry 
winds, is the bane of the farmer on the plains, rationally dis- 
posed timber belts will do much to increase available water 
supply by reducing evaporation. 

Evaporation, of course, goes on much less rapidly within 
than without the forest. How great this difference is in this 
section we have no exact figures to tell, but it is certain that 
it is much more than in Bavaria, where the following result 
was obtained:* In an experiment which was carried on to 
determine the amount evaporated from April to October it was 
found that from a certain area without the forest 40.8 centi- 
meters were evaporated, within pine wood 15.9 centimeters and 
within deciduous woods 6.2 centimeters. This shows that the 
evaporation was six and one-half times as great in the open 
field as in deciduous w^oods. 

Transpiration. Another factor by which forests dissipate 
water supplies and which has been referred to (page 14) is 
transpiration. The quantity of water so used is as variable 
as the amount of precipitation and in fact within certain 
limits depends largely upon it. That is to say, a plant will 
transpire in proportion to the amount of water which is at its 
disposal. Transpiration is also dependent on the stage of 
development of the plant, on the nature of its leaves and 
amount of foliage, on temperature, humidity, and circulation 
of the air, on intensity of the sunlight, and on temperature 
and stiucture of the soil and on other meteorological condi- 
tion. Rain and dew^ reduce transpiration, wind increases it. 

The amount of transpiration depends considerably upon 
the thickness of the leaves, therefore, the surface of the foli- 
age is not a reliable measure but should be compared with the 

weight. 

In some European experiments carried on during the 
period of vegetation the amount of water transpired by the 
different species per pound of dry matter in the leaves was as 
follows: 



32 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Pounds of Water. 

Birch and Linden 600 to 700 

Ash ...500 to 600 

Beech 450 to 500 

Maple 400 to 450 

Oaks 200 to 300 

Spruce and Scotch Pine 50 to TO 

Fir 30 to 40 

Black Pine ! 30 to 40 

Average, deciduous trees 470 

Average, evergreen trees 43 

This shows that there is a great difference in the amounts 
of water transpired from deciduous trees and eyergreen trees. 
In this case the deciduous trees transpired about eleven times 
as much as the evergreens. 

''The variability of transpiration from day to day is of 
wide range; a birch standing in the open and found to have 
200,000 leaves was calculated to have transpired on hot sum- 
mer days 700 to 900 pounds while on other days its exhal- 
ations were probably not more than 18 to 20 pounds. 

But while trees transpire large amounts of water our 
agricultural crops and other low vegetation transpire much 
larger amounts to the same areas. A small factor in the 
dissipation of w^ater supplies is the amount of water that is 
retained in the plant itself. As before mentioned this may 
amount annually to about 5000 pounds per acre. The water 
in fresh cut woods forms a large part of its weight. In hard 
woods such as Ash. Oak. Elm and Birch, it forms 38 to 45 
per cent, and in soft woods 45 to 55 per cent or more. 

ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 

In discussing the elements of dissipation as to the degree 
of their effect under forest cover as compared with the same 
elements at work in the open field, we have seen that the shade, 
the low temperature, the relative humidity, the absence of 
strong air currents and the protective and water-holding 
capacity of the forest floor are all factors in the conservation 
of the water supplies. We have also seen that the quantity 
of water lost by evaporation, the greatest sourse of dissipa- 
tion, may be more than six times as great in the open as in 



ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATION. 33 

the forest. The only other conservative effect of forests on 
water supplies is their effect in retarding- the melting of the 
snows. This acts as an important function in the prevention 
of freshets by giving* the snow a longer time to melt so that 
the snow water has a better chance to sink into the ground. 
It is of course more evident in evergreen than in deciduous 
forests. On the grounds of the Minnesota Experiment Station 
where the woodland consists of a low growth of Oak, the snow 
is often retained in the woods a week longer than in the open. 
This often allows the snow water from the fields to almost 
wholly run off before it has begun to flow from the woods. 
Then again the daily flow of snow water from the woods is 
much shorter than from the open fields during spring weather 
when we have warm days and cold nights, for it begins later 
in the morning and stops earlier in the afternoon. Under the 
dense shade and mulch of the cedar swamps of Northern Min- 
nesota the snow and ice often remain until the beginning of 
summer. The Indians claim there has never been a time when 
they could not find ice for their sick in the cedar swamps of 
that section. This retarding effect on the melting of snows in 
the spring and in preventing the run-off is of far greater im- 
portance in the case of streams that rise in the high moun- 
tains than in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where the land is 
more nearly level. Where streams have their sources in 
mountains, as those of Colorado and other Rocky Mountain 
States, the cutting away of the forests causes a heavy flow of 
water early in the spring and little water in the summer when 
it is most needed for irrigation purposes. This has become 
so evident that the Chamber of Commerce of Denver, Colora- 
do, recently petitioned the President of the United States to 
reserve such land in forests and administer it at public 
expense, and in their petition nsed in part the following 

language: 

•'The streams upon which the irrigation system of Colo- 
rado depend are fed by the springs, rivulets, and melting 
snows of the mountains, which in turn are nourished and pro- 
tected by the native forests. Where the forests have been 
destroyed and the mountain slopes laid bare most unfavorable 
conditions prevail. The springs and the rivulets have 
disappeared, the winter snow melts prematurely, and the flow 

2 



34 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

of the streams, hitherto equable and continuous, has become 
fitful and uncertain. Floods and drouth alternating clearly 
indicate that the natural physical conditions of the region 
have been unduly disturbed. In winter and early spring, 
when heavy masses of snow have been accumulated on treeless 
precij)itous slopes, snow and landslides frequently occur with 
disastrous result to life and property. Even thus early in the 
present season a considerable number of valuable lives have 
been sacrificed in this manner." 

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. 

The distribution or "run-off" of the water is often a more 
important factor in its economy than the quantity available. 
It is influenced by the surface conditions of the soil cover, by 
the porosity and structure of the soil and by the slope. There 
are two kinds of run-off, the surface run-off and the under- 
g-round run-oft'. The former is likely to do injury by eroding 
the soil, while the latter is generally beneficial to vegetation 
in the formation of springs and in raising the water level in 
the soil. It is evident that the less surface drainage and the 
more underground drainage the greater the spring-water sup- 
ply and vice versa. We are, therefore, interested in deter- 
mining the factors that increase underground drainage and 
reduce the surface flow. 

It is plain that whatever retards the flow of water over the 
land aids it in sinking into the soil. We find this exemplified 
in swamps where the soft, rough ground retards the surface 
flow, and in forests where the foliage checks the water in its 
descent to the ground and the forest floor retards the surface 
run-off. Theoretically such a cover should promote the flow 
of springs and maintain the height of water in wells, and in 
practice we find that this is often the case. In some cases 
springs had entirely disappeared after the clearing of 
near-by forests but have commenced their regular flow since 
the trees have been allowed to grow again. Springs in turn 
influence the flow of water in rivers so that forests about the 
headwaters of streams often have a most potent effect in 
maintaining their flow. There is in fact no influence of the 
forest that is of greater importance in the distribution of water 



WIND AND HAIL STORMS. 35 

supplies than its effect in retarding- the run-oft' even though 
its effect in preventing- evaporation is very important. 

FOREST INFLUENCES ON WIND AND HAIL STOEMS. 

We have seen that the wind breaking- power of the forest 
is a very important factor in retarding evaporation, and in 
preventing the drifting- of sandy soil and snow. In the forest 
the air may be rather still while in the open a piercing gale 
may be blowing; in consequence there are no blizzards in a 
w^ooded country. Tornadoes of great force have occasionally 
broken down wide areas of timber in this section but instances 
are very rare in which they have continued for long distances 
through forests, and it is probably true that forests have a 
tendency to prevent their formation and perhaps entirely 
break up those of lesser violence. M. Becquerel is said to 
have found by careful study that in some parts of central 
France hall storms show a marked disinclination to enter 
forests and yet occasionally they do so, but nothing of this 
sort has been noticed here. 

FOREST INFLUENCES ON FOGS AND CLOUDS. 

The influence of forests on fogs and clouds has frequently 
been mentioned. The fog seems to linger in the woods after 
it has cleared oft' elsewhere. Trees act also as condensers 
and gatherers of dew\ hoar-frost and ice; the latter phenomo- 
non is especially remarkable in the so-called ice storms, 
where the accumulation of ice on the trees is so great as to 
break them down. The load of ice on some large trees is 
probably a ton or more. In this case the tree acts simply as 
an inorganic body. 

IMPROVEMENT OF LAND ON WHICH TREES GROW. 

As has been shown, trees add large amounts of soluble 
mineral matters to the soil through the fall and decay of their 
leaves. In the same way they add large amounts of humus to 
the land which helps to keep the soil porous and yet makes it 
more retentive of moisture and gases. The roots of trees 
often penetrate deep into the soil and bring up plant food that 
w^ould not be reached by agricultural crops. A part of this 
is returned to the surface soil by the yearly fall of the leaves 



36 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

and in the twigs and branches that are left on the ground 
when the iree is cut dow^n. The roots deepen the soil and by 
their decay furnish plant food to the soil and leave channels 
through which water and air may enter the subsoil. It has 
been estimated that after a sandy soil in New England is so 
exhausted that it wall produce nothing but red mosses it may 
be renew^ed to its pristine vigor and productiveness by the 
growth of trees on it for thirty years. 

WHY THE PRAmiES ARE TREELESS. 

This question has been answered in many w^ays but often 
it would seem by persons not acquainted with the principles 
of forestry. It seems that the best way of getting a clear un- 
derstanding of this matter is to consider tw^o extremes of tree 
growth. Eastern Minnesota has a rainfall of perhaps 26 to 
35 inches and a comparatively moist air and at least during a 
part of the year is well adapted to the growth of the hardier 
kinds of trees. Here we find the White Pine, Bassw^ood, 
Oak, Elm, Poplar and other trees attaining large size. 
Western Dakota has a very light rainfall mostly in the spring 
and a very high rate of evaporation. Trees can scarcely be 
made to grow in this section without irrigation, and the low 
vegetation, the grasses, w^hich require a less amount of w^ater 
replace the tj*ees. It is evident that between locations having 
such extremes of tree grow^th there must be a place where the 
trees give way to the lower forms of vegetation. Such a 
meridional zone is found in central Minnesota and though it 
has probably changed wath fluctuating rainfall its general 
location has remained practically the same for many years. 
The location of this zone w^as probably gradually driven 
eastward for many years previous to settlement by the prac- 
tice of the Indians of burning over prairies in order to fur- 
nish good pasturage for the buffalo. Of late years, since the 
prairie fires have been largely prevented the tree line has 
moved w^estward and gained a little on the prairies. When 
left to itself the western limit of this tree zone would not make 
very great progress westward but with man's assistance in 
cultivation and various other ways it may be extended much 
farther towards the arid regions than if left to natural con- 
ditions. So we find that while irreat sections of the interior 



RAINFALL AND HEIGHT OF WATER TABLE. 37 

of this country are treeless on account of lack of water, trees 
planted on them and properly cared for may often grow 
thriftily. But trees planted on our prairies always require 
more care to make them do well than those planted in sections 
of greater rainfall and we should not expect them to grow as 
large as in the timbered sections without irrigation. 

RAINFALL AND HEIGHT OF WATER TABLE IN THE LAND. 

A few years ago it was argued by many friends of tree 
planting that it was practicable bj^ the planting of trees to in- 
crease the rainfall and prevent evaporation in the great con- 
tinental plain sufficiently to materially change the climate. 
The large rainfall and the good crops produced for a number 
of years in the drier portions of this area after considerable 
planting had been done seemed to endorse all that the most 
enthusiastic of tree planters claimed. But it must be very 
evident to any careful student of the subject that such small 
plantings as were made even had they been maintained could 
scarcely have had any appreciable effect on the general cli- 
mate of so vast a territory. It is very evident, too, from a 
study of the annual rainfall that it has fluctuated greatly in 
this section and that we have perhaps not recorded the least 
or the greatest amount for any one year. 

There are some facts that seem to show plainly that there 
must have been a time when the water level of our lakes was 
much lower than it is now or than it was during the very dry 
years from 1890 to 1895, when the rainfall in most cases pro- 
duced no flow in the streams. There is a lake near Devils 
Lake, N D., where in 1890 the old overland trail leading west 
terminated abruptly on one side of the lake and was taken up 
again in the continuation of its direction on the opposite side. 
The trail is clear and distinct, showing it to have been of 
comparatively recent use. It is a reasonable inference that 
when this trail was in use this lake was dry. There are places 
near the shores of Devils Lake where upright stumps are 
standing submerged in water. The same phenomenon has 
been noticed in other places. These are almost certain indica- 
tions of a time or times when the beds of these lakes where the 
stumps are, were out of water or very nearly so for a sufficient 
length of time for the trees to grow. The climate must have 



38 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

been very dry and the great continental plain, or at least por- 
tions of it, must have bordered pretty closely upon a desert, 
and the ''Great American Desert" may have been a reality. 
It would seem then that the knowledge we are gaining of the 
unknown past, as well as the records of more recent years, 
point to the recurrence of great fluctuations in the annual rain- 
fall of this section, and it seems probable that such changes 
follow series of years and that the recedence of our lakes may 
be followed by periods of higher water. 

But the influence of the cultivation of the soil on water 
supplies must be taken into account in this connection, for it 
is undoubtedly true that man has changed the conditions of 
the- soil sufficiently to greatly influence the run-off. The 
breaking up of large areas of prairie sod, with its low rate of 
evaporation, and the planting of such land to agricultural 
crops with a relatively hig-h rate of evaporation, has resulted 
in a loss of soil water. Then the cultivated soil takes upmore 
water than the sod-bound prairie slopes, so that it does not 
have so good an opportunity to collect in lakes and swamps 
which often supplied the water of wells. And further, the 
straightening and cleaning out of water courses, and the 
draining of swamps in the effort to get arable land, has had a 
similar effect on subsoil water supplies. 

HOT WINDS. 

The hot winds of the plains which so often cause serious 
injury to farm crops in Kansas. Nebraska and the Dakotas 
have been ascribed to the arid staked plains, whence taking a 
northeasterly direction they draw all the moisture from the 
vegetation with which they come in contact. The view has 
also been presented that they have their origin on the Pacific 
Coast, ascend the Rocky Mountains, lose their moisture and 
descend on the eastern slopes. But all theories that ascribe 
their origin to a distant source are inadequate to explain their 
phenomena. For instance, all who are acquainted with these 
winds know that they blow only during very dry weather when 
the earth is heated very hot, that a good rain speedily brings 
them to an end, and that they blow only during the day time, 
commencing about 9 A. M. and continuing until sundown. 
This daily movement is often constant for several weeks^ 



HOT WINDS. 39 

showing that there is evidently some connection between them 
and the course of the sun. For these reasons and others 
which would require too much space to give them here, the 
best authorities unite in attributing them to local origin. 

Mr. George C. Curtiss describes the process of the produc- 
tion of a typical hot wind as follows: "The necessary condi- 
tions are those of the 'warm wave,' namely, a diminishing 
pressure to the northward, producing southerly winds which 
initially elevate the temperature above the normal. A cloud- 
less sky favors an intense insolation, as a result of which the 
dry ground is soon raised to an extreme temperature, and the 
air is heated from it by radiation, reflection and conduction. 
The resulting diminution of density due to the rise of tempe- 
rature furnishes impetus to previously existing horizontal 
currents, and by 10 o'clock in the morning the hot wind is 
fully developed. Hundreds of miles of hot dry earth contrib- 
ute to maintain and feed the current, and gathering strength 
^s the sun mounts higher the hot wind sweeps over the 
def-jnseless prairie. Neither hills nor forests rise in its path 
to break its power or dispute its sway and with no enemy save 
the tardy raincloud, the fetid blast sucks out the life-sap of 
the growing grain. It will be readily seen then that each of 
tne states, Kansas, Nebraska and North and South Dakota, 
develops its own hot winds and cannot charge them to the 
account of its neighbors." 

The local origin of these winds at once suggests the 
desirability of frequent windbreaks on the prairie farms as 
offering the most practical way of breaking them up. Irriga- 
tion of large areas will also undoubtedly do much to prevent 
them. 



CHAPTER III. 
TREE PLANTING. 

The subject of tree planting in this section naturally 
divides itself under the two heads of prairie planting and forest- 
planting. The former relates to the limited planting of trees 
on our prairies for ornament, protection and use and the 
latter to the care and management of timber lands and the 
planting of trees for profit from their growth. Our people 
are very generally impressed with the importance of prairie 
planting for protection and ornament, but are too prone to- 
regard the care and management of timber lands for the pro- 
duction of timber crops as a matter of little concern and very 
impracticable. 

PRAIRIE PLANTING. 

Whatever the ulterior object of prairie planting the sub- 
ject of protection to the buildings, their occupants and the 
cattle in the field should always be first considered. Our 
crops in this section are most liable to injury from the south- 
west wind of summer which dries them out and the northwest- 
wind of winter which blows the snow from the land causing it 
to lose the snow water. It also causes a loss of evaporation 
which goes on even in w^inter from the bare ground and from 
exposed crops causing them to winter-kill. The same winds 
are also the most uncomfortable to the occupants of farm 
buildings and are most likely to cause dust storms which 
should be especially guarded against. 

Windbreak is a general name given to anything that gives 
protection from wind. On the prairies it is often applied to a 
single row of trees planted for protection. 

Shelterbelt is a term more often used to signify several or 
a large number of rows of trees, but the term is often used in- 
terchangeably with windbreak. 

Grove is a term that refers to comparatively large bodies 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 41 

of trees A^hich may be planted for shelter, fuel or other pur- 
poses. 

Protection to Buildings may be furnished by a few rows or a 
^rove of trees. It is generally best to locate the building-s in 
a grove or grow one up around them so that protection may 
lye afforded from every quarter to the best advantage. The 
garden should also be included in the grove or shelterbelt 
about the buildings. 

Distance of the Trees from the Buildings and Roadways. Of what- 
ever the protection consists it should not be close to the build- 
ings or to any paths which are used in winter, for the snow 
drifts which always form to the leeward of such protection 
may become a great nuisance under such circumstances during 
winters of great snow fall. The windbreak had better be 
placed about one hundred feet back from the buildings, and if 
shade is wanted it can be obtained from scattered trees near 
the buildings which will not drift the snow. The same rule 
applies to the planting of trees on the north side of a road- 
way. The drifts of snow w^hich would be formed to the lee- 
ward of a windbreak so planted w^ould take longer to thaw in 
the spring and would keep the road muddy and in poor con- 
dition after those that were not protected had become dry and 
iirm. A row of trees is very appropriate by the side of a 
street or roadway and affords a pleasant shade, and if not 
planted too closely together will not drift the snow sufficiently 
to be an objection. 

Protection to Crops by Windbreaks. The objection to wind- 
breaks close to driveways may also be made against their use 
In fields, for they often keep the land for a short distance to 
leeward wet and in unfit condition to work after the rest of the 
:field has become dry. This is an objection where spring 
grains are grown, but to winter grains it is an advantage. On 
the other hand, the protection of a windbreak may give a 
much needed or beneficial covering of snow to crops on the 
leeward side. The protection from dust storms and drying 
winds has already been mentioned. The important question 
is how to get the advantages without the disadvantages. In 
many sections the disadvantage of having the snow linger on 
the field near the windbreak may be overcome by leaving a 



42 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

strip of land near it in permanent meadow or use it for a- 
rotation that does not take in ci'ops that require very early 
planting'. But even with spring planted grains it is more than 
probable that windbreaks properly planted are an advantage 
w^hen their benefits are considered for a series of years. It 
ofttimes happens that low windbreaks are more beneficial 
than high windbreaks in holding the snow on the land, for the 
high windbreaks often form a great drift that may remain late 
in the spring, while the low windbreak nowhere forms a large 
drift, but spreads the snow for long distances. Professor 
Budd says that in parts 'of the great continental plain of Rus- 
sia, where the climatic changes are much the same as in this 
section, the use of low windbreaks in wheat fields is very 
common. 

Height of Windbreak. From the preceding paragraph it will 
be seen that low windbreaks may often serve a better purpose 
than high ones in protecting fields. Exactly what is meant 
by a low windbreak may be an open question, but for the 
purposes of this discussion a low windbreak may be consid- 
ered one under twenty feet in height. In Russia and at the 
experiment station at Indian Head, Manitoba, windbreaks of 
Artemisia tobolksiana, which seldom grows more than eight 
feet high, are often used. About farm buildings windbreaks 
cannot be too high, and for this purpose the largest, longest 
lived trees should be used. 

Kinds of Trees for a Windbreak. In too many instances too 
many tree planters on the prairies have put out exclusively 
quick-growing, short lived trees, such as the Cottonwood and 
Lombardy Poplar and after fifteen or twenty years they have 
found their trees dying and nothing coming on to take their 
places. The quick growing kinds are very desirable as a 
protection for the near future, but they are often short lived 
and should never be planted alone. Among them should be 
planted a sufficient number of long lived and perhaps slower 
growing kinds to afford protection in later years when the 
short lived kinds have died out. The soil and location have 
much to do in determining the longevity of varieties; for 
instance, the Cottonwood and Lombardy Poplar are generally 
short lived trees when planted in this section, but when 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 43 

planted in locations where their roots reach the permanent 
water level their period of life may be considerably length- 
ened and they may then even be regarded as lono--lived trees. 
In starting a grove or windbreak on the prairie in this 
section, there is probably no better tree to begin with than 




Figure 3. A young White Willow windbreak on dry prairie at 
Coteaux Farm. Grown entirely by mulching after being well started. 

the White Willow. It is quick growing, rather long lived in 
most situations, makes good summer fuel and renews itself 
very readily from the stump. The Green Ash would probably 
rank next as a pioneer tree. The White Elm is also very 
valuable for this purpose, but generally should follow the 
White Willow\ The Cottonwood may sometimes, though very 
seldom, be the best to use, but on average prairie land it 
would be better if the White Willow or Green Ash were 
always planted instead. 

After a good windbreak has been secured it is safe to 
plant out the hardy coniferous evergreens and such trees as 
the Mountain Ash. European White Birch and other similar 
ornamental trees. Wind protection is beneficial to all trees 
and necessary for many of our best ornamental kinds and 
often makes the difference between success and failure in 
growing them. 

Distance Apart. In the planting of groves we should aim to 
get the land shaded by the trees as soon as practicable and to 
keep it covered with a canopy of leaves. The United States 
government recommended the planting of trees four feet apart 



44 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

each way with the idea that when so planted they would quick- 
ly shade the ground and consequently keep out grass and re- 
tard evaporation. Some successful plantings have been made 
on this plan, but when planted so closely tog^ether the branches 
g-row into the rows after a few years and cultivation must be 
discontinued. In this section where we have so much very 
bright sunshiny weather that grass can grow under foliage 
that would kill it out in a more numid climate, we find that 
trees planted four feet apart ea.ch way seldom afford sufficient 
shade to kill the grass under them for many years. This is 
especially true of such trees as the Cottonwood, Lombardy 
Poplar and White Elm when planted alone as they have open 
foliage that does not furnish a dense shade. Among tree 
planters who have had a large experience in prairie planting 
there has been a tendency of late years to plant two feet apart 
in rows eight feet apart, and some of our most successful 
planters prefer even more room than this between the rows. 
When plantings are made 2x8 feet the same number of trees 
are required for an acre as when planted 4x4 feet, but the 
former distance has the advantage over the latter in that the 
space between the rows can be cultivated for perhaps ten years 
or more by which time most trees will have formed a dense 
shade and be able to take care of themselves. Where a much 
greater distance than eight feet is allowed between the rows 
we generally fail to get forest conditions for many years and 
to that extent fall short of an important requisite in prairie 
planting. The distances given here might need to be modified 
to suit different varieties and local climatic conditions. 

Clear Plantings. Most of the plantings on our prairies con- 
sist wholly of one kind. In some cases good results are thus 
obtained but they are seldom as satisfactory as plantings 
made up of several different kinds. One of the greatest draw- 
backs to plantings made up entirely of one kind is the fact 
that drouth, insects or funsfous disease may destroy the whole 
planting at one time while in a judiciously mixed planting 
this could hardly occur. 

Mixed Plantings. The mixing of different varieties of trees 
in prairie planting is so important that it should be very 
carefully considered by planters. The European foresters, in. 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 



45 



recognition of this, have divided trees into two classes, light 
demanding or thin foliage species and shade enduring or thick 
foliage species. The first class includes the Maple, Birch, 
Cottonwood, Scotch Pine and Norway Pine, which require 
full sunlight for good development; the second class includes 
the Spruce, Balsam Fir, White Pine, White Cedar, Blue 
Beech (Carpinus caroliniana). Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya vir- 
giniana), and Bassw^ood, which w^ill endure considerable 
shade and consequently may be grown under other kinds. In 
central Europe the Beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) is the favorite 




Figure 4, A good tree claim. Planted by Mr. Gardner, of Lyons 
county. Located on high coteaux prairie. Soil very dry. Has planted 
about 30 acres in trees. 

shade enduring species of that section and seems to be espec- 
ially well adapted there for planting in mixed forests, but is 
not hardy here and we have no tree that will answer the same 
purpose as fully here. 

The Advantages of Mixed Plantings when properly made are 
as follows: (1) They make possible the growing of species 
that form a protection in the least possible time and still have 
coming on in the same grove longer lived and better kinds to 



46 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

take their places. (2) Many kinds that are somewhat tender 
are lielped very much by bein^ grown among the hardier 
kinds until well established. In this case the protecting trees 
are called nurse trees. The Scotch Pine is seldom a success 
when standing alone on our western prairies, but when 
partially protected by some deciduous tree it stands very 
well. The same is generally true of Hard Maple in this sec- 
tion and of Catalpa and Black Walnut in Southern Minne- 
sota. (3) In good mixed plantings the ground is more likely to 
be properly shaded than it would be in clear plantings of such 
thinly leafed species as the Cottonwood or White Elm, which 
do well and afford good shade when mixed with Green Ash or 
Box Elder. (4) Mixed plantings are most interesting and 
ornamental. (5) They attract more birds by their better 
protection and the greater variety of food offered. (6) YV^hile 
the chance of injury to some of the species by climatic 
changes, diseases and insects is increased, the possibility of 
total loss from any or all of these causes is reduced to the 
minimum. 

The most important constituent of a prairie grove of 
mixed trees should be some well-known durable kind as 
the Elm, Ash, or Box Elder of which there should be a 
sufficient number to completely shade the ground when the 
others are gone. On the outside especially on the north and 
west it is often a good plan to put at least a few rows of White 
Willow or possibly Cottonwood to furnish a quick protection. 
The rest of the grove should consist of hardy sorts and may 
include some of the evergreens and such fruit bearing trees or 
shrubs as the Wild Plum, Wild Black Cherry, Russian Mul- 
berry and Juneberry. These latter furnish food for the birds 
and may often be a help in supplying the home table. The 
plan of planting with a view of providing some food for birds 
is not mere sentiment for they protect our gardens from many 
insects and if we furnish an abundance of Russian Mulberry 
they will not trespass much on our strawberries or raspberries. 
It is the author's opinion that in all our prairie planting we 
should pay more attention to using our native fruits and Rus- 
sian Mulberry as plants of secondary importance. 

List of Trees for Mixed Plantings. Some suggestions may be 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 47 

found in the following- lists but several other trees might often 
be used to ^ive a variety or a tasteful display. 

For Porous Moist Soils in Southern Minnesota. White Elm, 
Black Walnut, Green Ash and Hard Maple in equal quanti- 
ties with a scattering of the fruit plants. The Hackberry 
may wholly or in part takes the place of the White Elm and 
the Box Elder the place of the Green Ash. The White Wil- 
low, Basswood and Soft Maple would also do w^ell in such a 
location. One of the main kinds might be replaced by the 
White or Norway Spruce, Douglas Fir or White Pine. In 
fact such land as this will grow any of the trees adapted to 
this section. 

For High Prairie Soils in Southern Minnesota. Green Ash, Box 
Elder, White Elm and White Willow in equal quantities with 
scattering- of fruit plants. Basswood might be used to a 
limited extent and White Spruce, Red Cedar, Norway Pine, 
White Pine or Scotch Pine might be used in the place of one 
of the main kinds. 

For Moist, Porous, Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota. White 
Willow, White Elm, Box Elder, Basswood and Green Ash in 
equal quantities with a scattering of fruit plants. In some 
localities it might be best to use Cottonwood on the outside of 
the grove. Hackberry might take the place of part of the 
White Elm and White Spruce, Arborvitae, Norway Pine, 
Red Cedar, and some other conifers might be used to a limited 
extent. 

For High Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota. Cottonwood, 
White Willow^ Box Elder and White Elm in equal quantities 
with a scattering of fruit plants. White Spruce and native 
Red Cedar might also be used in a small way. 

List of trees commonly planted arranged in the order of 
their hardiness: Deciduous trees: Green Ash, White Wil- 
low, White Elm, Box Elder, Bassw^ood, White Poplar, Hack- 
berry, Soft Maple, Canoe Birch and Yellow Locust. Ever- 
green trees: Red Cedar, Dwarf Mountain Pine, Jack Pine, 
Bull Pine, White Spruce, Austrian Pine, Scotch Pine, Doug- 
las Spruce, Norway Pine, Norway Spruce and White Pine. 

Size of Trees. In the case of deciduous trees it is generally 
best to start with one year old thrifty seedlings, although trees 
two years old may often be used to advantag^e. The Oak, Wal- 



48 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

nut and similar trees are better started from seeds where they 
are to remain and the. White Willow should be started from 
cuttings. Seedlings. Elm. Ash and Cottonwood may often be 
pulled from some river bank or lake shore, or bought of 
nursery men at a very low^ figure or they may be raised from 
seeds. White Willow cuttings can generally be obtained fi-om 
some neighbor or from nurseries. In the case of conifers 
transplanted seedlings should be used. Whatever the source 
of any stock that is to be plauted it should be thrifty and 
vigorous and not weak or diseased. 

Method of Planting. The methods used in prairie planting 
are much the same as for transplanting in the nursery. In 
every case much pains should be taken to have the soil in the 
best condition. It is generally better to delay planting for a 
year than to attempt it in poorly prepared soil. Tree plant- 
ings have been made on our prairies by sowing tree seeds 
broadcast in autumn after first carefully preparing the soil, 
but the plan is seldom successful. A start can, how^ever, be 
made from seeds by planting the seeds in hills either alone or 
with corn or beans. In the latter case the tree seedlings often 
do very well and do not interfere with the growth of the crop. 
The seedlings are cultivated in the spring after the crop is 
removed and as they are in r(nvs this is a very simple matter. 
The common and generally most successful plan w^ith trees 
that can be easily transplanted is to start with seedlings and 
plant in rows. The simplest and easiest way of doing this is 
to furrow one way, mark out the other way and plant the 
trees in the furrows at the intersections. If Black Walnut or 
any of the oaks are wanted in a mixed planting it is generally 
best to plant the other species first and put in the nuts or 
acorns afterwards. Where it is desirable to plant seedlings 
or cuttings to fill vacancies, a pointed stick or spade may be 
used to make the hole. Whatever method is used in planting 
it is most important that the soil be packed firmly around the 
roots so they will not dry out. If the soil is dry it cannot be 
made too solid around the roots. If cuttings are used they 
should be made about 14 inches long and in planting be pushed 
into the loose soil in a slanting position, leaving only one 
bud above the surface as recommended in the planting of 
cuttings. 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 49 

Cultivation should be commenced shortly after plantino- and 
be repeated often enough to keep the top three inches of soil 
loose so as to form a dust blanket to retard evaporation dur- 
ing dry weather. The soil should never be allowed to become 
baked hard after a rain, but the crust should be broken up with 
a horse cultivator as soon after a rain as it can be worked. 
Cultivation should be discontinued after the first of August in 
order to encourage early ripening of the wood. The weeds 
that grow after this time of year will do no harm. 

One of the best tools for early cultivation of small seed- 
lings is Breed's Weeder, which may be worked both ways and 
cleans out the weeds to perfection. The ordinary corn culti- 
vator is also a good implement for this purpose. Later culti- 
vation should consist of working the soil with a one-horse 
cultivator or plow. If the horse implements are properly 
used there will be no necessity of hand hoeing for the few 
weeds that grow in the rows of trees will do no injury to them. 
Some planters sow^ oats among the young trees for protection 
when cultivation ceases, but if field mice are abundant it may 
be best not to do so. Late in autumn of the first year or two 
after planting some soil should be turned towards the trees 
with a plow to protect them. 

Thinning. In growing prairie groves we should always 
aim to have the tops of the trees just touch one another with- 
out crowding. In order to bring this about the grove must 
be thinned occasionally, for although the trees would thin 
themselves if left alone it would be at the expense of growth 
and perhaps cause serious injury. Trees that are crowded 
together may suffer more from drouth than those that have 
plenty of room for their roots. This is especially true of ten- 
der trees on dry land. If the trees begin to crowd one another 
the poorest should be removed, but this should be done care- 
fully and never to such an extent as to let in the sunlight, 
Avhich would encourage the growth of grass, weeds and side 
b)ranches. Thinning may be done at any time, but if the wood 
taken out is to be used for fence posts or poles it would be 
I>etter to cut in winter and peel at once to aid it in curing. 

The Proper Location of the Buildings on a Farm is a very im- 
portant matter and seldom receives the attention which its 
importance demands. The position of the buildings deter- 



50 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

mines the location of the drives and of the shelter belts if any 
are to be planted. There are many factors which should enter 
into the study of this question, among the first of which is the 
lay of the land. Good drainage and good water are the first 
requisites for the location of a home, after which comes^ 
convenience and beauty. It is very desirable that the first 
location be made just right, since when other improvements- 
and buildings have been commenced it can seldom be changed 
without much extra expense. In the case of most of our 
farms the subject of plans is conspicuous by its absence, as 
small cramped grounds about inconvenienily arranged build- 
ings bear abundant evidence. 

In figure 5 is shown four plans suggestive of the proper 
location of the shelter belts about farm buildings located on 
level prairies and varying according to the location of the 
main highw^ay. Five acres in the form of a rectangle, 25 rods 
wide and 32 rods long, are included in the land about the 
buildings and this has a shelter belt five rods wide on the 
north and west sides and on the south side two rows of trees 
ten feet apart, with the trees one rod apart in the rows. With- 
in this enclosure are all the farm buildings, orchard fruit and 
vegetable garden, barnyards, etc. The house should be with- 
in 100 feet of the road and the stock buildings at least 100 feet 
from the house and garden. About the buildings and garden 
some supplementary windbreaks and ornamental trees and 
shrubs will be needed for wind protection and for beautifying 
the place. This arrangement gives plenty of room for the 
buildings, barnyards, garden and orchards, and while all the 
land enclosed may not be needed for these purposes, the 
remainder is well adapted to the growing of general farm 
crops. The plans are only suggestive and no attempt is made 
to work out details, and there are comparatively few farms 
that they would fit exactly. For instance, while it is desir- 
able to have the buildings centrally located, their position 
must frequently be pushed to one side on account of a swamp 
or lowland which is not suitable for them or their position 
may be determined by a beautiful natural grove. Figure 6 
shows a plan for a south front drawn on a larger scale. It 
may often be desirable to change the shape of the land 
enclosed, but in the great majority of prairie farms a plan 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 



51 



similar to this would work out to good advantage and the 
area enclosed by windbreaks could often be increased to ten 
acres to good advantage. 

A rule that should be carefully followed in all tree plant- 



NORTH, 







^yryy^i^iy^l^^^ 


'.'•'•'h'.i: 








o 1 


i '.'.': 


LJ 












' - • • -1 






Figure 5. Suggestion for laying out the grounds about the buildings 
on prairie farms, shovsring arrangements adapted to a highway located 
on four different sides. Size 30x37 rods, enclosing five acres, exclusive of 
«helterbelt on north and west sides five rods wide. Rows of trees indi- 
cated. See figure (6) for further details and suggestions. 

ings is that the view from the most commonly used rooms of 
anything that is suggestive of pleasant associations or that 
is especially interesting or entertaining should not be cut off. 



52 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



Under this head would be included the view from the living 
room windows of the traveled wag-on road or perhaps of the 
railroad, of the neighboring houses or perhaps a nearby lake 
and of the important fields on the farm, especially those where 
stock is pastured. These views can generally be secured with- 



NORTH. 




HigKwi 



Figure 6. Suggestion m detail for laying out the grounds about the 
buildings on a prairie farm. Highway on south, size 30x37 rods enclos- 
ing five acres; windbreak on north and w^est five rods wide. Two rows 
of trees next to highway. Rows of trees indicated. 

out seriously impairing the value of the windbreaks by cut- 
ting small openings in them or perhaps by simply shortening 
the trees, so that they will not interfere with the line of sight. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FOREST MANAGEMENT. 

The timber lands of Minnesota should as a rule be man- 
aged so as to get the greatest cash returns from them for that 
only is practical forestry which has this fundamental feature 
always in view. For many years the attention of the people 
of this country has been drawn to the possibility of a de- 
pletion of our forests and a timber famine in the near future. 
But increased transportation facilities have made new sources 
of timber easily accessible to us, w^hich fact together with the 
use of inferior kinds of trees for lumber has kept the predicted 
timber famine from materializing until now our people have be- 
come skeptical on this point and look upon these predictions as 
very premature. To any one who carefully studies the subject 
however, it w^ill be very evident that our supply of White 
Pine, that most generally useful of all our timber*trees, is fast 
decreasing and that it cannot be many years before this will 
be apparent by the advance of prices for this kind of timber. 
Most of the land of good quality in Minnesota seems destined 
to be eventually used for farming purposes, but there will 
always remain a large area of stony or very sandy land that 
will be unfit for profitable agriculture and which wall produce 
more revenue w^hen used for the production of timber than 
when used for any other crop. There is also a large amount 
of land that will not be needed for farming purposes for many 
years and this should grow timber until needed for agri- 
culture. Besides this, with the increased value of fuel, lum- 
ber and other forest products there will come a better appreci- 
ation of the importance of farm wood lots as a source of fuel, 
poles, lumber, etc., for farm use and a more general dispo- 
sition to save some land for this purpose. 

At present in the greater part of our forested area north 
of St. Paul the timber is greatly in the way of settlers and the 
price of fuel is simply the cost of gatherinsr it, no charge 



54 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

whatever being made foi- the wood itself. This state of things 
exists because not only in the forests but more especially in 
the great area of cut-over timber lands in that section there 
is such an immense amount of dead and down timber that it 
is seriously in the way and far in excess of the fuel demands 
of the settlers on those lands for a score of years to come. 
There seems to be something incogruous in the fact that 
while one-half of our state is prairie and sadly in want of fuel 
and other forest supplies, the other half has such a super- 
abundance of these products that they are going to waste and 
only a small portion is considered worth marketing. 

Our Virgin Forests have contained and those remaining now 
contain a large percentage of trees past their prime and los- 
ing in value each year they stand. Such forest products 
should be worked up as soon as a good market can be found 
for them. The marketing of the products of the virgin forest 
in Minnesota has added greatly to the wealth and prosperity 
of the state and under proper management this source of 
wealth should continue indefinitely. 

Timber in Minnesota. The most reliable figures place the 
total area of natural forest in Minnesota in the year 1896 ex- 
cluding brush land and open swamps at about 12,000,000 
acres. The merchantable forest timber on this land consists 
of about 14,424,000,000 board feet of White Pine, 3,412,000,000 
board feet of Norway Pine and 6,000,000,000 board feet of 
Jack Pine, Spruce, Tamarack and hard woods besides that 
which is only valuable for fuel. 

The importance of the lumber industry to the state may 
be best represented by the value of the finished product. The 
census of 1890, owing to incomplete returns, does not repre- 
sent the entire industry yet it gives some idea of its extent as 
follows: 

Value of annual product $25,075,132 

Capital invested $39,837,000 

Number of employes 25,715 

Wages paid annually $6,166,266 

This estimate does not include wood used as fuel, railway 
ties, piles, poles, posts, fencing, mine timber, house logs, 



FOREST MANAGEMENT. 



55 




Figure 7. primitive forest. 
White and Norwav Pine mixed. Near Mille Lacs. 



56 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



charcoal, medicinal products or the products of distillation, 
the total value of which products is very large. 

The saw mill cut of Minnesota during- the past five years 
has been estimated at 1,323,497,000 feet board measure per 




Figure 8. Old pine cuttings alter being once burned over. 

year, of which about 323,000,000 feet has come in from neigh- 
boring states. 

The best authorities agree that the normal annual increase 
on our 12,000,000 acres of forest area should be about 2,000,- 
000,000 feet board measure or a mean annual increase of 185* 
feet B. M. per acre. If this were true it would leave a wide 
margin to our present annual timber cut without impairing 
our normal growing stock. In other words this great lumber 

* This is a very conservative estimate since many observations show- 
that the annual increase in this section may exceed 500 feet board 
measure per acre. 



FOREST MANAGEMF.NT. 57 

industry of so iBuch value to the state would be continued in- 
definitely under normal conditions. But there is practically 
no timber land in this state under normal conditions and there 
is little or no increase on the far greater part of our cut-over 
timber lands. On this account the continuance of our lumber 
industry is not hoped for by those engaged in it. In other 
words we are working our timber resources as though they 
were amine which can never be restocked. 

The timber lands of all civilized countries have passed 
through about the same wasteful conditions as those which 
now prevail here. While this does not justify the present 
deplorable situation here, it shows us that the trouble we are 
suffering from is a common one, that will right itself with 
increased population and proper education. Previous to 
1700 the forests of Germany were in much the same condition 
as those here at present and a square mile of forest land could 
be bought for the present price of one of the oaks planted at 
that time. Our people are simply uninformed as to the possi- 
bilities of our forest land under proper conditions, 

European Systems of Forest Management have been referred to 
as being applicable to our conditions. But while we can 
learn much from the history of European forest administra- 
tion that IS helpful in throwing light on and the solving of 
our present problems, yet our conditions are so very different 
from those existing in Europe that much discretion must be 
used in adapting their methods to our present conditions. 
For instance, in Germany and France there is a profitable 
market for all that we term forest waste products, such as the 
smaller top-logs, branches, twigs, stumps, leaves, underbrush 
and even the roots of trees, while here such material encum- 
bers the ground and greatly increases the danger of forest 
fires, which is the greatest source of injury to growing timber. 

On account of the almost total absence of danger from 
fires in European forests and the low tax on such property, 
they are popular investments, so that although forest prop- 
erty there probably does not yield much over 3 per cent, per 
annum, there is plenty of capital seeking such investments 
and on account of the safety of the security, are contented 
with this low rate of income. Here, on the contrary, forest 
property is greatly in danger of forest fires, which makes 



58 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

investments in young growing- timber extra hazardous. Then 
again, even if forest property were quite free from danger 
from fire, our people can find so many more other avenues for 
profitable investment ,that yield quicker returns than can be 
found in Europe that they would be slow to put their money 
into young forest property for the reason that considerable 
time must elapse before the }' early increase can be harvested. 

The Taxes on Timber Lands which are almost generally exces- 
sive and entirely out of proportion to the value of the lands 
in this section, are another cause for the non-investment of 
money in timber lands here. Together wdth forest fires they 
have had the effect of discouraging lumbermen from holding 
their timber lands for a new growth. Dr. C. A. Schenck well 
says of the situation in North Carolina: "Why should the 
owner of woodlands pay taxes. Taxes on property are paid 
all the world over as compensation for protection of property. 
The commonwealth, however, although not protecting wood- 
lands at all imposes heavy taxes on them. Such legislation 
is unjust, but it is more than that; it is unwise, because it 
prevents the development of economic forestry." In this state 
(Minnesota) something is being done to protect woodlands, 
but it is very small indeed compared with the great interests 
involved, and the taxes levied on forest property are often 
very excessive. Something must be done to correct this evil 
if our forest interests are to be properly developed and 
remain as a source of continuous revenue in this state. 

The State of Minnesota owns or will own when the surveys 
are completed about 3,000,000 acres of land in the forest area 
of the state, much of which is better adapted to forestry than 
to agriculture, and should therefore be set aside for this pur- 
pose, but thus far nothing has been done to introduce any 
reasonable system for the management of this vast area which 
is not contributing a tithe of what it should contribute to the 
welfare of the state. Perhaps no state in the union is more 
favorably situated than Minnesota for carrying out a com- 
prehensive system of forest management and thus setting an 
example in good forestry to her citizens which would result 
in permanent material advancement. 



RATE OF INCREASE. 59 

RATE OF INCREASE IN TIMBER. 

The rate of increase on timber trees varies according" to 
the kind and age of the ti-ees and the conditions under which 
they are grovvino- Most of the pine trees cut for log timber in 
this state have been upwards of 100 years old and some of the 
White and Norway pine that has been cut was over 300 years 
old. Perhaps the largest White Pine ever cat in this state 
was scaled by H. B. Ay res. The tree was 253 years old, 
measured 48 inches in diameter on the stump and yielded 4050 
feet board measure of log timber. The most rapidly grown 
trees recorded in this state were: Norway Pine 100 years old, 
30 inches on the stump yielding 1050 feet board measure; 
White Pine, 106 years old, 27 inches on the stump, yielding 
1050 feet board measure, and White Pine 108 years old, 32 
inches on the stump, yielding 1450 feet board measure. The 
largest recorded acre yield of White Pine in Minnesota was 
near Carlton. The full yield of this acre was 111,050 feet 
board measure and after deducting for rot and crooks 94,264 
feet of sound timber remained. The average yield of White 
Pine is much below this and large areas have been cut that 
did not yield over 10,000 feet board measure per acre but 
much of this has been cut too young for best results. 

Marketable White and Norway Pine may be grown in 
about 30 years under the best conditions in this section and 
at this age will probably be about eight inches in diameter 
and 40 feet high. But such trees are then growing very fast 
and as the approximate increase in volume of the tree is as 
the square of the proportionate increase in diameter and the 
waste in workins: greatly decreases with the size of the trees, 
the cutting of them at such an early age would be at a loss of 
future profits. Such trees have very little, if any, heartwood 
and yet this kind of timber is being grown and marketed in 
many of the eastern states. In fact there is very little heart 
to any of the pine now cut in the New England states as it is 
practically all young second growth, and is generally mar- 
keted about as soon as it attains sufficient size to be salable 
without regard to the fact that it is then making its most 
rapid growth. 

From careful observation, the Experiment Station of the 



60 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

University of Minnesota estimates that on land adapted to 
the White Pine with a thick growth of this kind of trees eight 
inches in diameter, the annual increase should be about r)0 
cubic feet or 500 feet board measure per acre. In some cases 
this rate of increase has been more than doubled. 

The Thickness of the Annual ilings on trees varies with the 
conditions under which the trees make their sTOwth and is 
therefore a good index to these conditions. Trees that are 
crowded so that they make a very rapid upw^ard grow^th form 
very thin rings, and when this upward growth cfiases owing to 
the removal or suppression of surrounding trees, much thicker 
rings are formed. Trees that are grown in the open produce 
thick annual rings throughout their lives w^hich vary in thick- 
ness according to varying climatic conditions. Those of the 
White Pine vary in thickness from one-sixteenth of an inch or 
less in trees that are severely crowded to one-third of an inch 
in open grown trees in good soil. Willows sometimes have 
annual rings three-fourths of an inch wide. 

The Life History of a Mature Tree in virgin forest may often 
be determined by a study of the annual rings in connection 
with the environment of the tree. The Division of Forestry 
of the Minnesota Experiment Station has made several 
studies of this kind, among which are the following: 

Figure 9 shows a section of a White Pine which made its 
growth under varying conditions. This tree started into 
growth under Birch and Aspen, and when from twenty to 
twenty-five years old was nearly suppressed by them. Over- 
coming them when thirty years old it pushed upward rapidly 
until about its fiftieth year. It was then set free by fire which 
checked its upward growth for about twenty-ffve years, when 
owing to the crowding of surrounding trees it began to again 
increase rapidly in height. When eighty-four years old fire 
killed the surrounding trees and set this one entirely free, in 
which condition it remained until it was cut eighteen years 
later. When cut it measured fifty-five feet high, thirteen 
inches through at the base and contained 29.95 cubic feet of 
timber. During the last ten years it hade mad an average 
annual increase of 1.5 cubic feet. 

This study brought out the following facts: (1) While 



RATE OF INCREASE. 



61 



rapid upward growth is being made the lateral accretions at-e 
slight. (2) Large accretions accompany full leafage. (3) 
After the surrounding growth is killed, the tree begins to 
strengthen the portion which receives the greatest strain by- 
wind, that is, the lower part of the trunk. (4)In approach- 
ing the top of the tree the accretions are found to diminish as 
each live branch is passed. 

Figure 10 shows a section of a White Pine that was en- 
tirely open grown. This tree was cut when 56 years old and 




Figure 9. White Pine crowded and then open grown. 

measured 18 inches in diameter on the stump, 8 inches at 25 
feet above the stump and 48 feet in height. The volume of 
the stem when cut was 28.85 cubic feet; the accretion during 
the last ten years was 12.52 feet which is eqiiivalent to mean 
annual increment of 1.25 feet. 

As the live branches of this tree occupied the whole trunk, 
the timber was very knotty. A proper crowding would have 
kept it from forming large branches on the lower trunk, stim- 
ulated its upward growth and prevented so large an incre- 



62 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



ment during- the early life of the ti'ee. But if, as with ihe 
former tree, it had been first crowded and then set free, the 
best timber in the least time would have been secured. 

The Profit from an Investment in Land that is stocked 
with only very small conifei'ous seedlino-s is altog^ether too 
small and too remote to prove an attraction to investors at 
present even were the danger 'from lire entirely eliminated. 
But there is considerable land that is now stocked with a good 
growth of young pine of fair size that could be bought and 




Fig. 10. — Cross Section of White Pine open grown. 

managed at a good profit if the danger from fire could be 
greatly reduced. This land in many cases would not have to 
be held more than ten or fifteen years to secure a good profit 
on the investment, after which the profit might be made nearly 
continuous. The rapid growing deciduous trees, such as the 
Poplar, Willow, White and Y^ellow Birch, Soft Maple, Ash, 
Red and White Elm, Hackberry, Basswood, Locust, Black 
Walnut and Tamarack may sometimes be planted and grown 
at a profit on waste land that is adapted to them and should 



RATE OF INCREASE. 



63 



there be a stock of young trees of these kinds ah'eady on the 
land it can perhaps be soon made to yield a revenue in the 
shape of posts and fuel and later of timber. Even the slower 
growing' deciduous trees such as the Red, White and Bur Oak, 




Pig. 11. — Crowded and open grown Norway Pine. 
Crowded trees form the most good timber in the short- 
est time. Open grown trees have many side branches 
and consequently form poor timber. 

Hard Maple and Rock Elm increase very rapidly in good soil 

and could often be made to yield a good profit if properly 

managed. However, most of the hard wood lands of this 

section are of such good quality that they seem destined to be 

generally cleared for agriculture instead of being kept for 
timber. 



64 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

The Cultivation of Trees on timber lands in this section has 
never received much attention and the only data as to the rate 
of increase that we have to follow are what can be obtained 
from the native forests, and these are for this reason only 
approximately correct. In European countries and elsewhere 
it has been proved by long experience that more timber is 
^rown per acre, and that the growth is much more rapid on 
land where some attention is given to systematic forestry than 
on that which is left to itself, and it will seem reasonable to 
believe this, when we consider that much of the energy of 
trees may be expended in fierce competition with neighbors 
which may weaken them all and perhaps bring about unheal- 
thy conditions, and that natural forest land is generally 
unevenly stocked with trees and often with those that are not 
the most profitable kinds to grow. In the cultivated forests 
unnecessary crowding is prevented by judicious thinning and 
the land is kept evenly and completely stocked with the most 
profitable kinds. 

RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 

Various authors have suggested planting, seeding, prun- 
ing, thinning* and various other ways of continuing or im- 
proving the new growth in this section, Let us consider these 
matters separately. 

The planting of trees has been recommended as a remedy 
for the depletion of our timber lands. The objection to this 
is that the first cost of planting is so great that such remedies 
are seldom justified. It would hardly be possible to stock an 
acre of land with young pine for less than fifteen dollars per 
acre and while large tracts of land can be bought for perhaps 
fifty cents per acre, yet even at this very low price for the 
land the investment would be too large to start with. How- 
ever, where the seeding trees have been destroyed on large 
areas it may be best to do some planting in order to bring 
about the conditions for natural seeding and occasionally to 
make the whole stand more uniform by taking up some trees 
where the growth is too thick and planting in vacancies. 

Seeding by hand has also been recommended but experience 
shows that it is difficult to save seed of White Pine at an ex- 
pense of much less than one and one-half dollars per pound 



RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 65- 

and as from three to six pounds are required per acre it will 
be seen that at least in this case the first outlay is too large 
an investment for profit except perhaps in a few cases. 

Natural Reseeding of the land is then almost the only means 
of restocking- the land, which should receive attention here, 
as other methods are too expensive. It generally takes place 
in this section, and the only reason why it is not more suc- 
cessful is the- frequent destruction of the young seedlings by 
fires. The small crooked branching pine , and other seeding 
trees that are always left by lumbermen in their operations 
and generally considered worthless, perform a very important 
w^ork in producing seed, and it is a pity that there are not 
more such trees left to produce seed for our cut-over lands. 
When such trees escape the first burning after the land is cut 
over, they often remain for twenty years doing their blessed 
work of distributing seed each year, and when the conditions 
exist for germination and growth the seed grows and lives. 
Sometimes where such trees are not left by lumbermen, or 
where they have been destroyed by fire, it has taken twenty 
years to get the land properly reseeded to White Pine by the. 
slow process of seeding from trees at a distance of half a mile 
or more. 

In some European countries comparatively little planting 
of timber trees is done, and most of the young trees of some 
kinds are expected to come from seed scattered by trees that 
are left at cutting- time for this purpose. Indeed, it is a com- 
mon practice there to thin out as the time comes for final cut- 
ting, so as to let the light in onto the ground- and thus pro- 
duce the conditions necessary for the new growth to get a 
start. 

Renewal of Growth by Sprouts and Suckers. Many kinds of 
trees and other w^oody plants can renew themselves by means 
of sprouts and suckers, or both. Such, for instance, are the 
Oak, Willow, Ash, Bassw^ood and some other broad-leaf 
trees: but none of our narrow-leaf trees (conifers) have this 
power to any important extent. Young vigorous trees have 
the greatest power of renewing growth in this way. Such a 
growth seldom attains large size and is best adapted to con- 
ditions where fuel is the object sought and the land is to be 
cut over once in twenty or thirty years. After cutting, the 



66 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

growth is very rapid for a number of years, and then it is 
often very slow. 

In cutting- with the intention of securing a renewal of 
forest growth, in this way the work should be done while the 
tree is dormant, i. e. between the time when the leaves fall in 
autumn and the trees start into growth in spring. The best 
time in this section is the latter part of winter or early spring. 

It is, as a rule, desirable that such trees be cut close to 
the ground so that the sprouts may come out at or just below 
the surface soil so vhat they may produce new roots and not 
have to depend throughout life on the old stump. The stump, 
also, should be cut slanting so as to shed water readily, 
which will tend to prevent rot and thus help to maintain the 
vigor of the tree so that the young shoots will be better 
nourished. 

Pollarding consists in cutting back the side branches of a 
tree, or cutting off the main stem at a few feet from the 
ground. The branches may be cut off close to the main stem 
or at a short distance from it, the latter method being prefer- 
able. New shoots spring from the cuts and these are again 
cut when of suitable size. What has been said in regard to 
the season and manner of cutting in the previous paragraphs 
is practically true here. This process is mostly used in the 
case of willows and poplars to obtain material for basket 
work, small poles, fuel, etc. 

Pruning of Forest Trees is generally an expensive operation 
and little is required if trees are properly crowded when young 
so that they take on an upright form free from side branches. 
If they are not crowded when young many side branches are 
formed which generally die out when the trees get large 
enough to shade all the ground. In some cases these dead 
branches drop quickly to the ground, and in others they 
remain for years, producing knots and irregularity in the 
wood formed in the meantime and should be removed. Trees 
grown in the open retain their lower branches more or less 
throughout life and they produce in consequence timber of 
Inferior value as compared with trees grown in crowded 
woods. 

Large wounds made by cutting off green branches should 
be covered. It is often desirable to remove dead branches 



RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 8T 

and it is the practice to do so in some of the plantings of 
White Pine that have been made in New England. It is said 
that the lumber there is so greatly improved by so doing that 
the operation is a paying one. But under the proper condi- 
tions for the development of timber trees very little is gained 
by pruning. 

The Covering of Tree Seeds in Woodland, whether the seeds are 
sown naturally or artificially, can often be best accomplished 
by stirring up the soil with a strong harrow or a brush drag 
made of the branches of an oak or other tree having strong 
wood. This may sometimes be done most advantageously 
before the seeds fall and at other times after they have fallen. 
Where the soil is made loose and the forest floor is broken up 
before the seeds fall they are sfenerally sufficiently covered by 
wind and rain. They may sometimes be covered most satis- 
factorily by driving a fiock of sheep over the land after the- 
seed has fallen, the feet of the sheep pressing the seed into the 
ground. 

Thinning is the most important part of the forester's art in 
securing good timber and in reseeding the land. The ideal 
condition in the life of timber trees is to secure a natural crop 
of seedlings so crowded when young as to increase very 
rapidly in height and produce slender truaks free from side 
branches. When this crowding has gone far enough the less 
valuable and weaker trees should be removed to give the 
better trees sufficient room for their crowns to develop. These 
remaining trees in the course of a few years will again crowd 
one another too severely and this process of removing poorer 
trees must then be repeated. Then when the final stand of 
trees is approaching maturity, thinning should be commenced 
to let in light and air to produce the conditions under which 
seedlings develop to best advantage. 

In this connection it should be remembered: (1) That 
increase of wood is proportional to leaf surface and therefore 
the lands should be kept as nearly as possible covered with a 
canopy of leaves which should be on trees that are valuable 
for their timber. (2) That leaves need light; therefore, partly 
shaded branches form but little and impei'fect wood and those 
that are very heavily shaded die out; crowding prevents the 
formation of branches on trees and is important in securing 



68 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

the best timber. The amount of waste in branchwood vanes 
greatly, it being very much in trees that are entirely open 
grown and very little in trees that have been severely crowded. 
But as over-crowding causes decay it is important to do the 
thinning as soon as the tree has taken on a proper form. 
Crowding on one side causes crooks and these can be pre- 
Tented by cutting off the crowding tree or branch. 

The Ax and Saw, then, as will be seen from the foregoing par- 
agraphs, furnish the most important means when used judic- 
iously in securing the best growth of timber in forests and 
the proper succession of growth on forest land. 

Waste in Forests occurs, as^ has been partially stated, in 
branchwood, crooks, rot, and in growing of the kinds of trees 
that are not marketable. The kinds that are marketable depend 
largely on the demand. In considering this subject it is best 
to be conservative and to select kinds that are of stable value, 
and not likely to go out of fashion. Since crowding is best 
done by small trees among the large timber trees, they should 
be of a kind that are marketable when small. 

Much waste in timber is caused by cutting trees when 
small. The amount of waste in the shafts of straight trees, 
excluding trunks, branches and bark, may vary from eighty- 
one per cent in a tree eight inches in diameter and ninety feet 
high, to six per cent in a tree forty inches in diameter on the 
stump and one hundred feet high. It will thus be seen that 
there is great loss from cutting trees when small, especially if 
they are growing rapidly. 

Succession of Tree Growth is an expression sometimes used as 
though there were a natural rotation of trees on the land. 
There is nothing of the sort. Sometimes hardwoods will 
follow pine, or the pine the hardwoods where the two were 
mixed at the time of cutting and there was a young growth of 
one or the other kind w^hich had a chance to grow when its 
competitor w^as removed. Where land is severely burned 
after being cut over, the trees that show first ai^e generally 
the kinds w^ith seeds that float long distances in the wind such 
as Poplar and Birch or those having fruits especially liked 
by birds such as the Bird Cherry, w^hich is very widely distrib- 
uted. These show first on account of getting started first. 
The pine and the other trees may come in later owing to their 



RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 69 

being seeded later or owing to the later advent of conditions 
f ayorable to their germination and growth. It may happen 
in the case of burnt-over pine land that pine seed is distrib- 
uted over it the first year after it is burned, but owing to 
there being no protection from the sun the young seedlings of 
White and Norway Pine which are very delicate are destroyed. 
After a young grow^th of poplars has appeared the pine seed 
may find just the right conditions for grow^th for a few years 
and finally get ahead of the poplars and crowd them out 
while in the meantime it is being much improved by the pres- 
ence of the poplars which grow rapidly and force the pines to 
make a tall growth. On the other hand, however, the poplars, 
birches and other trees and shrubs and even weeds may some- 
times make so strong a growth as to kill out the young pine 
seedlings if they are not sufficiently well established at the 
time the mature growth is cut. 



CHAPTER V. 



DURABILITY OF WOOD. 

Decay in wood is due to the breaking down of the tissues 
by fungi. In some cases the fungus destroys the woody cells; 
in others it uses up the starch found in the cells and merely 
leaves a blue stain (bluing of lumber). Some kinds of fungi 
attack only conifers, others only hardwoods; some are con- 
fined to one species while others may affect several species, 
but probably no one of them attacks all kinds of wood. 
Figure 12 shows the discoloration of wood by a shelf fungus. 
The wood contains the fungus plant which when ready to pro- 
duce its spores, sends out a shelf-like body on the side of the 

wood. These shelves contain 
the spores and may be found 
on many old decayed trees or 
stumps. Various odors are 
produced in the wood by some 
of these fungi: they may be 
pleasant as those found some- 
times in the oak or unpleas- 
ant as those infesting some 
of the poplars. By studying 
both the favorable and the 
unfavorable conditions for the 
growth of the rot producing 
fungi we may learn the best 
methods of increasing the du- 

Figure 12. "Shelf" fungus on the rability of our woods and 
stem of a Pine (Hartig). a. Sound 

wood ; b. resinous wood ; c. partly thus avoid unnecessary waste. 

decayed wood or punk ; d. layer t^f 
living spore tubes ; c. old spore tubes 
filled up; f. fluted upper surface of 
the fruiting body of the fungus which 
gets its food through a great num- 
ber of fine threads (the mycelium;, 
its vegetative tissues penetrating the 
wood and causing it to decay. 




The soil and conditions un- 
der which wood is grown af- 
fect its durability. Conifer- 
ous vv^oods with narrow an- 



DURABILITY OF WOOD. 71 

nual rings are most durable especially when grown on com- 
paratively poor soils, in dense forests and at high altitudes. 
On the contrary, the hardwoods with wide annual rings are 
most durable and are growm on the low lands and in isolated 
positions. The wood of most broad-leafed trees produced in 
the open is more durable than that from the dense forest. 

Sound Mature Trees yield more Durable Timber than either young 
or very old trees. A tree is considered mature when it ceases 
growing vigorously, w^hich condition is indicated by the flat- 
tening out of the crown, by dead branches in the crown and 
by changes in the color of the bark. It is not indicated by 
size since this varies in the same species according to cir- 
cumstances. A small tree poorly situated for growth may be 
as old or older than a larger tree growing under better con- 
ditions. 

Intense Coloration of the Heartwood is a measure of durability 
in timber and faintly colored heartwood resembles sapwood 
in its properties, only surpassing it in dryness. The tannin 
or coloring matter of heartwood is antiseptic. Where heart- 
wood does not change its color or is lighter than the sapwood 
the protecting substances are generally absent andthew^ood is 
therefore liable to decay. This is plainly show^n in the hol- 
low trunks of Willow and Bassw^ood. 

Sapwood Contains More Ready Made Food in forms acceptable to 
a great number of kinds of fungi than the heartwood. This 
largely accounts for the fact that sapwood is much more li- 
able to decay than heartwood. This is especially true in the 
case of Cedar and Pine where the heartwood is protected by 
resinous substances. But w^hen the sapwood is well seasoned 
and heavier than the heartwood it lasts as long. Wood that 
has been once attacked by fungi becomes predisposed to 
further decay. 

The Time of Cutting Timber affects its durability only as the 
weather at the time of cutting affects the curing process. 
Wood cut in summer is generally affected by decay-producing 
fungi, rapid fermenting of sap and by bad checking owing to 
very rapid curing on the outside. As the cracks thus made 
go deep into the wood they may increase the danger from 
fungi. Where summer-felled \vood is w^orked up at once and 



72 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

protected by kiln-drying, it lasts as long as that cut at any 
other season. 

Early winter is probably the best time to cut timber as; 
regards durability, since it then seasons slowly at a time 
when the rot-producing fungi are not active, so that it can 
cure over on the outside before summer. Many kinds of fungi 
and beetles find a very favorable place just under the bark of 
logs. These can be avoided, the curing of the timber hastened 
and its durability greatly increased by removing the bark 
soon after felling. When trees are cut in full leaf it is advan- 
tageous to let them lie at full length until the leaves are 
thoroughly w^ilted ( 2 or 3 weeks) before cutting to size. With 
conifers this is a good practice at any season, and while not 
practical, yet theoretically all winter-cut trees should be left 
to leaf out in the spring before being worked. In this way 
most of the sap is evaporated, but in the care of timber that 
is to go at once into the water these precautions are not so 
important. 

Heat. (60 Deg. to 100 Deg. F. ) Moisture and Air in moderate 
quantities produce conditions under which wood quickly 
decays. It is on this account that fence posts rot oflf near the 
surface of the ground, where about such conditions of heat 
and moisture are usually found during several months of the 
year. For the same reason what is known as dry rot destroys 
green floor joists or other timbers where they are tightly 
enclosed, as under a house without ventilation, since moisture 
is always present in such places and the timber cannot dry 
out. Perfectly dry wood or that submerged in water will last 
indefinitely, and there seems to be no difference in different 
kinds of wood under these conditions. Pieces of pine wood in 
good condition have been found in Illinois buried toadepth of 
sixty feet that must have been there for many centuries. Nearly 
sound pine logs are occasionally found in the woods of this 
state, where they have a thick moss covering that has kept 
them moist and prevented their decay for hundreds of years. 
The remains of timbers in the piles of the lake dwellers, which 
must have stood in place two thousand years, are still intact. 
In these instances the wood was kept moist and never came in 
contact with the air. It is very evident, too. that wood which 
is kept in a dry place does not decay, since it may be found 



DURABILITY OF WOOD. 73 

in an unimpaired state of preservation in some of our very 
oldest building's. 

Curing is one of the most important processes in its eftect 
on the durability of wood. Well cured wood resists decay far 
better than fresh wood, because it contains an insufficient 
amount of water for the growth of fungi. Green wood covered 
with paint before it is dry is often destroyed by dry rot, since 
this fungus finds abundant moisture under the paint and the 
protection which was intended for the wood really protects its 
enemy, the fungus. Paint and other wood-protecting com- 
pounds are efiicient only when they are appliedto dry material, 
which they preserve by protecting them from moisture. But 
fence posts or other timber to be used in moist places, if well 
€ured, will even if not protected, last much longer than fresh 
cut timber. The amount of moisture in wood, then, is the 
most important factor in influencing its durability. 

Timber is Best Cured Under Cover, where it is protected from 
the sun and the full force of the wind but has a good circula- 
tion of air. If piled in the open, it is a good plan to shade 
it. When piling green or wet cimber, place lath or other 
strips of wood of uniform size under each log. post or tie. In 
piling saw^ed lumber the lath should be placed at the ends, as 
in this position they in a measure prevent checking on the 

ends. 

From twelve to eighteen months is generally sufficient to 

cure wood for ordinary use, while for special work ten or 

more years may occasionally be required. If green or wet 

timber is closely piled in warm weather it is likely to rot. 

The best method of curing timber without resorting to the use 

of expensive apparatus is to work it up at once and soak it in 

water for from one to three weeks to remove the sap from the 

outside of the wood. It will then season more quickly and be 

more durable than when dried without soaking. Sometimes 

it is absolutely necessary to thus water season large timbers 

as it is impossible to get the sap out of them by atmospheric 

seasoning. Large checks or cracks in the ends of logs or 

other timber of large dimension may be avoided or greatly 

lessened by painting the ends with linseed oil mixed with 

ground charcoal or other material to give it consistency. 

Covering with cloth or tarred paper also lessens checking. 



74 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Good Coatings for Wood consist of oily or resinous substances 
that are easily applied in a smooth coat and dry readily, yet 
do not have any tendency to crack or peel off. They should 
be applied to the whole exposed surface. 

Coal Tar is one of the best materials for covering wood to 
increase its durability. It is best applied hot, especially if 
mixed with oil of turpentine as it then penetrates more deeply, 
A mixture of three parts coal tar and one part unsalted 
grease to prevent the tar from drying too quickly so it may 
penetrate the wood better is recommended. One barrel of 
coal tar will cover from two to three hundred posts if it is 
properly applied. 

Oil Paints are next in value. Boiled linseed oil is used 
with lead, pulverized charcoal or other similar material to 
give it substance. Soaking the dry wood in crude petroleum 
is also recommended. 

Lime White Wash is a good preventive of decay in wood 
and although not as good for this purpose as coal tar it is 
very desirable. As with all other preservatives that are ap- 
plied to the surface, the wood should be very dry before it is 
applied and the wash should be applied evenly over all the 
exposed parts. It is on account of the lime that washes out 
of the mortar that the shingles on a roof just below the chim- 
ney last longer than on other parts of the roof. But if white 
wash is to be applied to shingles it should be applied before 
they are laid by dipping. 

Charring those parts of posts or timbers which come in con^ 
tact with the ground is a good preventive provided a thick 
layer of charcoal is formed and the work so carefully done as 
not to cause the timber to crack since deep cracking exposes 
the interior to decay. If not carefully done the timber may^ 
be seriously weakened. 

Antiseptics. The impregnating of timber with sulphate of 
copper (blue stone), sulphate of iron (green copperas), 
chloride of zinc, creosote, salts of mercury or other similar 
material has the effect when properly done of greatly in- 
creasing its durability. Such antiseptic substances have the 
power of destroying the rot-producing fungi. The materials 
are generally applied to fresh logs. If dry timber is to be 
treated, it is first boiled or steamed to open the cells. A 



DURABILITY OF WOOD. 75 

hollow cap connected with a force pump is placed over one 
end and the liquid forced through the cup into the wood which 
results in forcino- out the sap at the opposite end and replac- 
ing- it with the antiseptic. All the antiseptics mentioned have 
been used to some extent for this purpose, but for various rea- 
sons chloride of zinc is now most generally used. Railroad 
ties properly treated with this material are reported to last 
twice as long as those not so treated but owing to the abund- 
ance of cheap timber in this section the necessity for the 
practice of such economy is not yet apparent here although 
commonly adopted in Europe. 

In the following table is shown approximately the time 
fence posts will last in Minnesota. This table is based on 
practical experience in this state: 

TABLE SHOWING RANGE OF DURABILITY OF FENCE POSTS IN 
MINNESOTA. ( Air dry. ) 

Red Cedar 30 years. 

White Cedar (quartered 6 in. face) 10-15 " 

White Oak (6 in. round) 8 " 

Red and Black Oak 4 " 

Tamarack (Red wood) 9 '* 



Elm 6- 



ii 



Ash, Beech, Maple 4 " 

Black Walnut 7-JO " 

FUEL VALUE OF WOODS. ^ 

"The relative fuel values here given are obtained by de- 
ducting the percentage of ash from the specific gravity, and 
are based on the hypothesis that the real value of the combus- 
tible material in all woods is the same. 

"It appears from Mr. Sharpies* experiments that resinous 
woods give upwards of 12 per cent, more heat from equal 
weights burned than non-resinous woods; the heat produced 
by burning a kilogram of dry non-resinous wood being about 
4000 units, while the heat produced l5y burning a kilogram of 
dry resinous wood is about 4,500 units, a unit being the 
quantity of heat required to raise one kilogram of water one 
degree centigrade. 

♦This article on the fuel ^alue of woods is taken from the "Report 
of the Tenth Census," by Prof. C. S. Sargent. 



76 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

"Count Rumford first propounded the theory that the. 
value of equal weio^hts of wood for fuel was the same, without 
reference to specific distinctions: that is that a pound of wood, 
whatever the variety, would always produce the same amount 
of heat. Marcus Bull, experimenting in 1826 upon the fuel 
value of different woods, found a variation of only 11 per 
cent between the different species tested. Rumford' s theory 
must be regarded as nearly correct, if woods are separated 
into resinous and non-resinous classes. The specific gravity 
gives a direct means of comparing heat values of equal vol^ 
umes of wood of different resinous and non-resinous species. 
In burning wood, however, various circumstances affect its 
value; few fire places are constructed to fully utilize the fuel 
value of resinous woods, and carbon escapes unconsumed in 
the form of smoke. Pine, therefore, which although capable 
of yielding more heatf than oak or hickory, may in practice 
yield considerably less, the pine losing both carbon and 
hydrogen in the form of smoke, while hickory or oak, burn- 
ing with a smokeless flame, is practically entirely consumed. 
The ash in a wood, being non-combustible, influences its fuel 
value in proportion to its amount. The state of dryness of 
wood also has much influence upon its fuel value, though to 
a less degree than is generally supposed. The water in green 
wood prevents its rapid combustion, evaporation reducing the 
temperature below the point of ignition. Green wood may 
often contain as much as 50 per cent, of water, and this water 
must evaporate during combustion; but as half a kilogram of 
ordinary wood will give 2,000 units of heat, while half a kilo- 
gram of water requires only 268.5 units to evaporate it, 
1731.5 units remain available for generating heat in wood con- 
taining even a maximum amount of water. 

"A factor in the general value of wood as fuel is the ease 
with which it can be seasoned; beech, for example, a very 
dense wood of high fuel value when dried, is generally con- 
sidered of little value as ^uel, on account of the rapidity with 
which it decays when cut and the consequent loss of carbon 
by decomposition.*' 

fFrom a given weight. 



FUEL VALUE OF WOODS. 



77 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF 

DRY WOOD.f 



BOTANICAL NAMES 



COMMON NAMES 



Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 



Specific 
gravity of 
absolutely 
dry wood 



Crataegus cocci nea 

Hicoria ovata 

Os try a virgin iana 

A m el a nch ier a In i folia 

Amelanchier canadensis. 
Crataegus tomentosa.... 

Hicoria minima 

Quercus alba 

Quercus macrocarpa 

Robinia pseudacacia 

Prunus americana 

Viburnum lentago 

Celt is occidentalis 

Ca rpin us caroliniana 

Ulmus racemosa 

Crataegus crus-galli 

Fra xin us lanceolata 

Quercus coccinea 

Pyrus coronaria 

Ulmus pubescens 

Prunus virginiana 

Gymnocladus dioicus 

Acer saccharum 

Acer platanoides 

Gleditsia triacan thos 



White Thorn 

Shellbark Hickory, 

Hop Hornbeam 

Service-berry 

Juneberry 

Black Thorn 

Bitternut Hickory, 

White Oak 

Bur Oak 

Locust 

Wild Plum 

Black Haw 

Hackberry .... 

Blue Beech 

Cork Elm 

Cockspur Thorn. .. 

Green Ash 

Scarlet Oak 

Wild Crab 

Slippery Elm 

Choke Cherry 

Coffee Tree 

Sugar Maple 

Norway Maple 

Honey Locust 



85.85 
83.11 
82.43 

77.95 
75.49 
74.74 
74.39 
74.06 
72.96 
73.00 
72.82 
72.08 
72.26 
72.20 
71.54 
70.71 
70.82 
70.11 
68.98 
69.16 
68.88 
68.75 

66.86 



0.8618 

0.8372 

0.8284 

0.8262 

0.7838 

0.7585 

0,7552 

0.747O 

0.7453 

0.7333 

0.7313 

0.7303 

0.7287 

0.7286 

0.7263 

0.7194 

0.7117 

0.7095 

0.7048 

0.6956 

0.6951 

0.6934 

0.6916 

6800* 

0.6740 



*Air dried. 

fin this table the figures relating to North American species have 
been taken directly from or calculated from data in Sargent's Silva of 
North America and the report of the Tenth Census, and those relating to 
European species are from various European sources. 



78 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF 
DRY WOOD. {Continued.) 



BOTANICAL NAMES 



COMMON NAMES 



Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 



Specific 
gravity of 
absolutely 
drv wood 



Quercus rubra 

Betula. lutea. 


Red Oak 


66.04 
65.34 
65.16 
64.54 

62.72 


0.6621 


Yellow Birch 

White Ash 


0.6553 


Fraxinus americana 


0.6543 


ZJltnus americana 


White Elm 


0.6506 


Betula alba 


European White 
Birch 


0.6400* 


Fraxinus nigra 


Black Ash 


6318 


Larix laricina 


Tamarack 


62.16 


0.6318 


Fraxinus pennsylvanica 


Red Ash 


61.99 


0.6215 


A.cer rubrum 


Red Maple 


61 65 


6178 


Tu£!'lans nis'ra 


B'ack Walnut . . 


60 91 


0.6115 


Betula papyrifera 


Canoe Birch 


59.4J 


0.5955 


Pyrus sambuci folia 


Elderleaf Mountain 
. Ash 


58.08 
58.56 


0.5928 


Morus ru bra 


Red Mulberry 


0.5898 


Prunus serotina 


Wild Black Cherry... 
River Birch 


58.14 
57.42 


0.5822 


Betula nigra 


0.5762 


Pin us laricio austriaca 


Austrian Pine 




0.5 700* 


Pvrus americana 


American Mountain 
Ash 


54.08 
53.07 






0.5451 


Acer spicatum 


Mountain Maple 


0.5330 


Acer saccharinum 


Soft Maple 


52.52 


0.5269 


Pinus sylvestris 

Pseudotsuga taxi folia 


Scotch Pine 

Douglas Spruce 




0.5200* 


51.53 


0.5157 


Prunus pennsylvanica 


Wild Red Cherry 

Red Cedar. . .. 


50 03 


5023 


Juniperus virginiana 


49 11 


4926 


Pinus resinosa 


Norway Pine 


48 41 


4854 


Populus alba 


White Poplar 




0.4800* 


Pinus divaricata 


Jack Pine 


47.50 


0.4761 



*Air dried, 



FUEL VALUE OF WOODS. 



'9 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT C^F 
DRY WOOD. (Continued.) 



BOTANICAL NAMES 



COMMON NAMES 


Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value 


Specific 
gravity of 
absolutely 
dry wood 


Bull Pine 


46.99 


0.4715 


1 

1 

Norway Spruce 




0.4700* 


Larffetooth Poplar.. 


46.11 


0.4632 


Speckled Alder 


45.88 


0.4607 


Black Spruce 


45.71 


0.4584 


Ohio Buckeye 


45.03 


4542 


Basswood 


45.00 


0.4525 


Chestnut 


44.95 


0.4504 


Peachleaf Willow.... 


44.68 


0.4502 


White Willow 




4500* 


Black Poplar 


0.4500* 


Black Willow 




0.4456* 


Western W^hite Pine. 


43.42 


0.4358 


Box Elder 


42.82 


0.4358 


Hemlock 


42.20 

4148 


0.4239 


Hardy Catalpa 


0.4165 


Balm of Gilead 


41.42 


0.4161 


Butternut 


40.66 
40.38 


0.4086 


W^hite Spruce 


0.4051 


Aspen 


40.10 


0.4032 


Narrowleaf Cotton- 
wood 


38.81 
38.52 


0.3912 


Cottonwood 


0.3889 


White Pine 


38.47 
38.02 
37.26 


0.3854 


Balsam Fir 


0.3819 


Blue Spruce 


0.3740 


White Fir 

Balsam Poplar 


36.07 
36.11 
33.38 
31.53 


0.3638 
0.3635 


Engrelmann Spruce... 
Arborvitae 


0.3449 
0.3164 



Pinus ponderosa.. 

Picea excelsa 

Populus grandidenta. 

Alnus incana 

Picea mariana 

^sculus glabra 

Tilia american a 

Castanea dentata 

Sa lix a mygda lo ides .... 

Salix alba 

Populus nigra.. 

Salix nigra 

Pin us Hex His 

Acer negundo 

Tsuga canadensis 

Catalpa speciosa 



Populus balsamifera 
candicans 



Juglans cinerea 

Picea canadensis 

Populus tremuloides. 
Populus angustifolia 



Populus deltoides. 

Pinus strobus 

Abies balsamea.... 
Picea pungens 



Abies concolor 

Populus balsamifera. 

Picea engelm anni 

Th uja occiden talis.... 



■Air dried. 



CHAPTER VI. 
PROPAGATION. 

Trees are grown from seeds or by division, the latter 
term includes increase by cuttings, layers, buds and grafts. 
Plants grown from seeds are generally more vigorous and 
longer lived than those of the same species propagated in any 
other way. Trees should be grown from seeds when it is 
practicable to do so, but willows and some other trees are 
apparent exceptions to this rule and seem to do as well when 
grown from cuttings as when grown from seeds. Varieties do 
not generally perpetuate their peculiar characteristics when 
grown from seeds and must therefore be propagated by some 
method of di\'ision. 

The most desirable trees from which to propagate are 
those of good form and healthy growth: the latter is the one 
most important requisite, especially if new plants are to be 
grown by any method of division. It is not so essential in 
selecting seeds, as even weak plants may produce good seed- 
lings but unhealthy cuttings, layers or grafts are of very 
uncertain growth. In general it is best that the stock trees be 
healthy throughout, but a tree may have a rotten trunk due to 
some injury and still have perfectly healthy branches and be 
a desicable tree from which to propagate. 

SEEDS. 

Sources of Seeds. In growing trees from seeds the source of 
the seeds is very important. It may be given as a safe 
general rule that seeds are most desirable which come from 
trees grown in as severe a climate as that in w^hich the seeds 
are to be sown. It has been found that trees of Box Elder 
and Red Cedar grown from seeds gathered in Missouri are 
not nearly so hardy in this section as those from seeds grown 
in our own state. It has also been found that seeds from the 



SOURCES OF SEEDS. 81 

western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where the climate is 
very humid, produce trees which are not so well adapted to 
withstanding- the conditions of this section as trees gro\Tn 
from seeds from the eastern slopes, where the summers are 
very dry and hot and the winters very dry and cold. Our 
climate is especially trying- to trees and it is necessary to 
exercise much more care in the selection of tree seeds here 
than it is in the more favored climate of the eastern and west- 
ern coast states. 

There are conditions under which every species of tree 
thrives best and makes its g-reatest g-rowth, but the trees 
produced under these conditions are not always the hardiest. 
As we reach the limits of their growth, trees ^have a tendency 
on account of drouth or cold to become smaller, more compact 
in form and to ft-uit young-er: e. g., the Box Elder is a larg-e 
tree in Kansas and Missouri, but as it gets towards the Mani- 
toba line we find it becomes dwarfed and more bushy inhabit. 
Towards the southern limit of its range the tree becomes more 
open in habit and more liable to disease. The Scotch Pine 
seeds imported into this country are generally saved from the 
small scrubby trees that are found in the higher altitudes of 
the Mountains of Europe, beca,use such trees produce the most 
seeds and they are most easily gathered from them, while 
seeds are seldom gathered from the large timber trees of this 
species, and it is very likely that this poor seed stock is 
responsible for much of scrubby appearance of many Scotch 
Pine plantations in this section. 

Trees have a strong tendency to perpetuate qualities which 
have been developed in them by climate and soil conditions. 
Hence, even though an essentialpoint in considering the value 
of any tree is its hardiness, the question of size is import- 
ant and should be taken into account, as we generally wish to 
grow trees of as large size as practicable. We may conclude 
then that since trees from a very cold climate generally lack 
in hardiness, and those from a very severe climate may lack 
in size, it is best to procure seeds from the best trees grown* 
near by or from those grown under similar climatic condi- 
tions elsewhere. It is not generally necessary to limit this 
range very closely, as a hundred miles north or south of a 



82 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

^iven point will seldom make much difference in hardiness, 
unless the climatic conditions are very dissimilar. 

., The place where the trees that we are to set out are grown 
is not of so great importance as the source of the seeds from 
which they are grown: e. g., seedlings of Red Cedar grown in 
Missouri from seeds of native Minnesota trees would be safer 
to plant here than seedlings raised in Minnesota from the 
seeds of native Missouri trees. 

Seedling Variations. In our common trees variations are 
not sufficiently marked but that we think of the trees as com- 
ing* true from seeds, and yet careful observation will show to 
any one that each seedling plant is different from neighboring 
plants of the same species. Sometimes a seedling will occur 
that possesses especially pleasing or curious characteristics 
that are very marked and desirable. In such cases the seed- 
ling is generally propagated by some method of bud-division 
and makes a new variety. In this way have originated such 
highly-esteemed kinds as Wier's Cut-leaf Maple, which was a 
chance seedling of the Soft Maple; the Weeping American 
Elm, Cutleaf Birch, Weeping Mountain Ash, Pyramidal 
Arborvitae, and a host of other kinds that are propagated by 
bud-division by nurserymen. The person who is on the look- 
out for these or other variations will have no trouble in find- 
ing many that may perhaps be worth naming and propa- 
gating. 

Gathering Seeds. All kinds of seeds should be gathered 
when ripe. In some cases it is best to pick them from the 
trees even before they are quite ripe after which they will 
ripen if kept dry. Unripe seeds do not keep as well as per- 
fectly ripe seeds. Most kinds of tree seeds are most cheaply 
gathered from the ground. In some cases this method can be 
greatly facilitated by cleaning up the land under the trees so 
it will be smooth and even. Seeds of some species can often 
be swept up at little expense from under trees growing along 
the highway. 

Germination of Seeds. There are many conditions which 
affect the germination of seeds: 

(1. ) Seeds which are thoroughly ripened before they are 
gathered produce the best plants. Very immature seeds will 
very often grow, but the tendency with them is to produce 



GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 83 

weak plants. (2.) Freshly gathered seeds, as a rule, are 
preferable to old seeds for sowing and seeds that have never 
been allowed to become very dry are more likely to grow than 
those which have been severely dried. This is especially true 
of most of the kinds of seeds that ripen in early summer, the 
most of which lose their vitality very quickly when stored. 
( 3. ) Some seeds, such as those of the Plum, Cherry and Black 
Walnut require severe freezing vvhen moist in order to germi- 
nate. (4. ) Seeds that are covered with water will not gener- 
ally grow. This is true at least of our northern tree seeds. 
( 5. ) The seeds of some trees germinate at a temperature near 
freezing, while others require a much higher temperature. (6. ) 
After seeds of some plants have become very dry, scalding 
may aid them in germinating, while with others scalding is in- 
jurious. It is sometimes desirable to soak seeds for one or two 
days in tepid water and then mix with sand and freeze before 
sowing. Lindley records that the seeds found in raspberry 
jam grew after passing through the heat necessary to boil 
syrup (240 deg. Fahr. ) and that seeds of Acacia and Lophan- 
tha grew after being boiled five minutes, but our common tree 
seeds will not stand such treatment. 

Stratification, as the term is used in this connection, refers 
to the storing of seeds mixed with layers of earth, leaves or 
other material. It is customary to apply the term solely to 
seeds that are mixed in this way and kept frozen. over winter. 
It is the common practice with the seeds of such trees as the 
Black Walnut, Hickory, Basswood, Plum, Cherry and Moun- 
tain Ash. Where only small quantities are to be cared for 
they are generally mixed in boxes and the boxes buried in 
well drained soil out of doors, but where large quantities are 
to be handled they may be mixed with soil on the surface of 
the ground and left until spring: such a pile is termed a pit. 
One of the best materials with which to cover seed pits is 
inverted grass sod. It is a good plan to have the material 
that is mixed with the seed so fine that it will easily go 
through a screen and leave the seeds separated for sowing. 

We may conveniently classify seeds into three groups: 
(1) those that ripen in spring and early summer; (2) decidu- 
ous tree seeds that ripen in autumn, and (3) coniferous tree 
seeds. 



84 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

SEEDS THAT RIPEN IN SPRING AND EARLY SUMMER. 

Seeds that ripen in spring- and early summer should be 
gathered as soon as ripe, and with the exception of the Red 
Elm, sown within a few days or weeks, as they retain their 
vitality but a short time. ( Red Elm seed will not grow until 
the following spring. ) In raising seedlings of this class it is 
important to have land that will retain its moisture during 
the summer months or else that which can be conveniently 
irrigated, since these seeds must often be sown during very 
hot, dry weather, and as they cannot be covered deeply they 
are very liable to fail with any but the best conditions. The 
thousands of seedlings of Cottonwood, Elm and Soft Maple 
that spring up on the sand bars along our rivers and lake 
shores, show what are the best conditions for these seeds to 
germinate. 

Cottonwood seedlings can be grown by scattering the 
branches bearing unopened seed pods along rows in moist 
soil and covering the seed lightly when it fall&, but they are 
of so uncertain growth that most of our nurserymen depend 
upon the sand bars and lake sbiores for their supply. 

Elm, Soft Maple and Mulberry seeds generally grow well 
on any good moist soil. They should be sown thickly in 
drills eight inches wide and three feet apart, or in narrow 
drills. Elm seeds should be covered wath about one-half inch 
of soil. Mulberry with about one-fourth inch and Soft Maple 
with about one inch. If the weather is dry the soil over the 
seeds should be well packed, and if the weather continues dry 
the row^s should be watered. Watering, however, is seldom 
necessary on retentive soil if the soil has been properly 
packed. With proper conditions seeds so planted will start 
quickly and grow rapidly; the Elm will grow from six to 
eighteen inches and the Soft Maple twelve to twenty-four 
inches high before the first autumn. Such seedlings are large 
enough for permanent setting in forest plantations or wind- 
breaks. They may be allowed to grow in the seed bed another 
year without injury, but should be transplanted before the 
growth of the third season begins. 

SEEDS OF DECIDUOUS TREES THAT RIPEN IN AUTUMN. 

Seeds of deciduous trees that ripen in autumn may be 



SEEDS THAT RIPEN IN AUTUMN. 85 

sown to advantage in the autumn provided, (1 ) the soil is not 
of such a nature as to become too solidly packed over them 
before spring; (2) they are not liable to dry up or wash out; 
or (3) they are not subject to injuries from rodents, insects or 
other animals. In many locations some or all of these possible 
injuries may make spring sowing most desirable with most 
kinds of seeds. Our most successful nurserymen, however, 
prefer to sow in autumn and try to bring about the conditions 
that make it successful. 

In the matter of storing these seeds it Is difficult to lay 
down any exact rule to follow and here, as in all other similar 
matters, considerable must be left to good judgment. As a rule, 
however, it is perfectly safe to winter over all of the seeds of 
hardy plants which ripen in autumn, by burying them in sand 
out of doors. 

Tree seeds that ripen in autumn may be divided into four 
classes which require different methods of treatment to grow 
them; viz., dry seeds, seeds with fleshy coverings, nut seeds 
and leguminous tree seeds. 

Dry Seeds, like those of the Ash, Birch, Hard Maple and Box 
Elder are very certain to grow when sown in the spring in 
drills as soon as the soil can be easily worked, in the same 
way as recommended for Soft Maple and Elm. If not sown 
until spring they will have to be kept over winter and w^hen 
only a small quantity is to be kept over this is best done by 
spreading the seeds on the surface of the hard ground, cover- 
ing with an inverted box and digging a ditch around it to 
carry off the water, or the seeds may be mixed with sand and 
kept in a dry cool place. Large quantities may be kept on 
dry ground under a shed. These seeds will stand consider- 
able drying, but if allowed to become very dry, hot, or moist, 
their vitality may be injured or destroyed. 

Seeds with Fleshy Coverings as those of the Cherry and Plum 
should be kept from getting dry before planting. The best 
way to handle them is to separate them from the pulp, mix 
with moist sand out of doors and keep them moist until 
planted. It is generally safe to sow such seeds in the autumn 
on good land but some growers prefer to sow them in the 
spring. This class of seeds requires to be frozen before germ- 
inating. If allowed to get dry before being frozen, they 



86 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

should be mixed with moist sand for a few days until plump 
or they may be soaked in water but care must be taken that tbey 
do not g-et water soaked. Sometimes the dry hard shells of 
such seeds ceem to be water proof. In this case if the seeds 
are of special value it is a good plan to file a hole throug-h 
the shell so as to let the seed become moist. Most seeds of 
this class grow the first year if properly handled but some of 
them, for example, the Red Cedar and the Wild Thorn, even 
with the best management will remain dormant in the ground 
for one year before growing. 

Nut Seeds as those of the Oak, Hickory and Walnut should 
be handled as recommended for seeds with fleshy coverings 
but are more sensitive about being severely dried. As they 
do not transplant readil}^ it is very desirable to plant them 
w^here they are to remain permanently. They should be 
covered about two inches deep. 

Seeds of Leguminous Trees as those of the Black Locust, 
Honey Locust and Coffee Tree will stand sev-ere drying for 
a long time and still grow provided they are treated 
with hot water just before planting. " In this case the hoc 
water should be poured over the seeds shortly before they are 
sown and be allowed to stand until cool when it will be found 
that some of the seeds have sw^ollen up; these should be picked 
out and the remainder be treated again with hot water and 
the process repeated until all have swollen. Seedlings of 
this class generally transplant readily and are managed in 
the same way that is here recommended for the Ashes and 
Maples. 

CONIFEROUS TREE SEEDS. 

Seeds of such coniferous trees as Pine, Spruce, Tamarack 
and Arborvitse are dry and winged, but the Red Cedar has a 
fleshy, berry-like covering surrounding its seed. The seeds 
that grow^ in cones are most easily gathered before being shed 
from the cones. The cones should be gathered before they 
open and then dried after which those of most species will 
open and the seeds can be threshed out. Cones of a few trees 
as those of the Jack Pine will not open without artificial heat. 
These can be opened by gently heating them over a stove or 
in an oven to a temperature of from 100 to 150 degrees Fahr. 
Seeds of this class grow readily w^hen sown but must be very 



CONIFEROUS TREE SEEDS. 87 

carefully stored or they will lose their vitality. They should 
be kept similarly to the seed of the Ash and Box Elder, but 
are uiore liable to injury than these kinds from too much 
moisture or heat, and for this reason some careful growers 
prefer to always keep them mixed w^ith dry sand in a cool 
shed. 

The seeds of the Red Cedar hang on the tree all winter 
and must be picked by hand. They should be soaked in strong 
lye for twenty-four hours, the fleshy covering removed by 
rubbing them against a fine sieve and then stratified in sand, 
where they will be frozen during the winter. Even with this 
treatment they will seldom grow until the second year. 

Raising Coniferous Trees from Seed. The land selected for 
sowing the seed should have a light, porous surface soil, 
preferably underlaid with a moist subsoil that will not dry 
out easily. It should be so located as to have good circula- 
tion of air over it that the plants may dry off quickly after 
rains and it must be so shaded as to keep off about one-half 
of the sunlight. This latter permits a play of light and shade 
over the bed all day and is about the condition under which 
we find nature raising such seedlings w^here trees partially 
shade the ground and protect them from the constant rays of 
the sun. In practice we aim to secure these conditions as 
follows: A piece of well-drained, rather sandy soil, in an 
airy place is selected and laid oat in beds four feet wide. In 
May the seeds are sown rather thickly (about three sfood seeds- 
to a square inch) either broadcast or in rows and covered 
with about one-fourth inch of sandy loam and then with about 
one-fourth inch of clear sand. Some of the smaller seeds, 
like those of White Spruce, should not be covered more than 
one-fourth inch. Before the seedlings break the ground a 
frame work six feet above the beds is made and covered with 
laths laid about one and one-half inches apart running north 
and south, or with sufficient brush to shut out about one-half 
the sunlight. If the bed is very much exposed to the winds it 
should have similar protection on all sides. In such a place 
as this or in w^oodlands where these conditions can be fulfilled 
evergreens can be raised with much certainty, while if planted 
in the open ground most kinds are sure to fail. 

The most common cause of failure with those who try to 



88 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



raise evergreens is what is known as "damping- off'' which 
occurs only while the plants are growing rapidly the first 
year. In such a case the seeds start well and the seedlings 
g-row vigorously for a short time or until we have a spell of 
damp weather and then die off with g-reat rapidity. It seems 
that the sunlight and the mud that has been spattered on the 
plants so weakens them that they are liable to disease. For this 
reason we shade the bed and cover with sand which will not 
allow the mud to be spattered over the seedlings, and in very 
moist warm weather we occasionally apply dry sand to dry 
off the plants. For most kinds of conifers the shade is re- 
quired for at least two years. 




Figure 13. Evergreen seed bed shaded with a screen of old brush 
placed on a frame. 

Coniferous tree seedlings grow very slow^ly when young 
seldom making a growth of more than two or three inches the 
first year. The most rapid growing of our pines seldom pro- 
duce a growth of more than sixteen inches in four years and 
should not be moved to their permanent place until about this 
time. They should, however, be transplanted from the seed 
bed to a temporary place when two years old to prevent 
crowding and to facilitate root growth. 

On the approach of winter the beds of coniferous seedlings 
should be covered with about three inches of straw or leaves, 
evergreen branches or other material that will afford pro- 
tection from the sun and from alternate freezing and thawing. 



SOWING SEEDS. 89 

This should be removed ia the spring after all danger from 
drying cold winds has passed. 

SOWING SEEDS AND CULTIVATING SEEDLINGS. 

Most of our tree seeds should in good soil be covered 
from one-half to three-quarters of an inch, but this is rather 
too much for such small seeds as the Birch, Alder and Cotton- 
wood, while the Black Walnut, Xative Plum, Acorns and 
other large seeds and seeds of Box Elder, Ash, Soft Maple 
and Basswood may often be covered two inches to advantage 
if the soil is somewhat dry. It is a good rule not to cover 
any tree seeds deeper than is necessary to secure permanent 
moisture and on wet or heavy land only a very thin covering 
is desirable. If the land is very heavy it is a good plan not 
only to cover lightly but to sow more thickly then usual as a 
large number of seeds may be able "to push up through the 
surface soil when a few would fail to do this. 

The Amount of Seeds of Deciduous Trees to Sow on a given 
area depends very much on the kind and quality of the seeds 
and the soil in which they are to be sown. As a rule thick is 
better than thin sowing. The seeds of Box Elder, Ash and 
Maple should be sown at the rate of about one good seed to 
the square inch: Elm and Birch should be sown twice as thick. 
Plums and cherries sown in drills should be allowed about one 
inch of row for each good seed. Black Walnut, Butternut, 
Hickory and similar seeds should preferably be planted three 
or four in a place, and all but one seedling cut out when 
nicely started. If sown in drills they should be placed from 
three to six inches apart. Rather thick seeding does not 
seem to be any hindrance to the making of a good growth by 
seedlings of most of our broad-leaved trees the first year, but 
if left thick in the seed bed the second year they are often 
seriously stunted. On this account such seedlings should be 
transplanted or thinned out before the beginning of the second 
year. In nursery planting it is a good plan to sow in freshly 
stirred land as the seeds are far more likely to get a good 
start in it than in soil that has remained untilled long enough 
to become crusty and lumpy. Then if the seeds are planted 
immediately after cultivation has been e'iven, and while the 
soil is still mois't, they have at least as good a chance as the 



90 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



weeds to start, while otherwise the weeds are soon ahead of 
the seedlings. 

It is important to keep the soil loose and mellow between 
the seedlings, and to keep the weeds very carefully removed 
until at least the middle of July, after which they may some- 
times be left to advantage to afford winter protection, but in 
the case of very small seedlings this protection is best given 
by a light mulch put on in autumn and taken off in spring 
and the weeds should be kept out. 

If the seeds of Red Cedar, the Thorn, Mountain Ash and 
other seeds that require a long time to start are sown in the 
spring and do not germinate, it is a good plan to cover the 
bed with about an inch or two of hay or leaves: keep out 
weeds and let this mulch remain until the following spring, 
w^hen the seeds will probably be in condition to grow and the 
mulch should then be removed. 

TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR 

OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL 

IN MINNESOTA. 



BOTANICAI. NAMES 


COMMON NAMES 


Height in 
inches 


Pin us sfrobus 


White Pine 


3 


" jiexilU 


Western White Pine 

Norway Pine 


3 


" resinosa 


3 


divaricata 


Jack Pine 


3 


ponderosa scoj}ulornm 


Bull Pine 


3 


syl vestins 


Scotch Pine 


3 


laricio anstriaca 


Austrian Pine 


3 


Larix laricina 


Tarn n rack 


3 


" europeci 


European Larch 

White Spruce 


3 


Picea canadensis 


2 


itmriana 

pungens 


Black Spruce 

Blue Spruce 


2 
3 


engehnanni 


Engelmann Spruce 


3 


excelsa 


Norway Spruce 


2 


Txvga canadensis , .. 


Hemlock 


3 







SIZE OF ONE-YEAR SEEDLINGS. 



91 



TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR 

OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL 

IN MINNESOTA. {Continued.) 



BOTANICAL NAMES 



COMMON NAMES 



Height in 
inches 



Pseudotsuga taxifoUa. 

Abies balsamea , 

" concolor , 

Thuja occidentalis , 

Juniperus virginiana... 
" - communis... 

Juglans nigra , 

cinerea 

Hicoria ovata 

•' minima 

Salix nigra 

amygdaloides.... 

" alba 

lucida 

Populus tremuloides . . . 
grandidenta... 
balsamifera . . . 

deltoides 

B etui a papyrifera 

alba 

lutea 

Ostrya virginiana 

Carpinus caroliniana. 

Quercus alba 

macrocarpa.. 

rubra 

coccinea 

Ulmus americana 

racemosa 



Douglas Spruce 


4 


Balsam Fir 


3 


White Fir 


2 


Arborvitae 


2 


Red Cedar 


3 


Common Juniper 


2 


Black Walnut 


12 


Butternut 


12 


Shellbark Hickorv 


8 


Bitternut Hickorv 


4 


Black Willow 


10 


Peachleaf Willow 


10 


White W^illow 


10 


Shining Willow 


6 


Aspen 


10 


Largetooth Poplar 


12 


Balsam Poplar..... 


10 


Cottonwood . 


16 


Canoe Birch 


4-8 


European White Birch... 


6-10 


Yellow Birch 


4-8 


Hop Hornbeam 


4-6 


Blue Beach 


4-6 


White Oak 


4-8 


Bur Oak 


4-8 


Red Oak 


6-12 


Scarlet Oak 


6-12 


White Elm 


6-12 


Cork Elm 


6-10 



92 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR 

OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL 

IN MINNESOTA. (Continued.) 



llmus pubescens 

Celtis occidentalis 

Morus rubra 

alba tartarica 

Fyrus ioensis 

" americatia 

'• sambucifolia 

Amelanchier canadensis.. 

Crataegus tomen tosa 

Prunus american a 

'• pennsylvanica 

serotina 

rirginiana 

Gleditsia triacanthos , 

Gymnochidas dioicus 

Bobinia jjseudacacia 

Acer saccharum 

" platanoides 

" rnhrum 

" saccharinuni 

' ' ^;e/?.rt t9z/?2;«/iiVw/?« 

'• tartaricum 

" negnndo 

JEsculus hippocastanmn . 

JEsculus glabra 

Rhamnus catharticus 

Tilia americana 



Slippery- Elm 

Hackberry 

Red Mulberry 

Russian Mulberry 

Wild Crab 

American Mountain Ash 
Elderleaf Mountain Ash 

Juneberry 

Black Thorn 

Wild Plum 

W^ild Red Cherry 

Wild Black Cherry 

Choke Cherry 

Honey Locust 

Coffee Tree 

Locust 

Sugar Maple 

Norway " 

Red '• 

Soft *• 

Striped *• 

Tartarian Alaple 

Box Elder 

Horse Chestnut 

Ohio Buckeye 

Buckthorn 

Basswood 



Elaeagnus angustifolia [Russian Olive ... 

Fraxinus americana I White Ash 

lanceolata iGreen " 

'• nigra | Black '' 

Catalpa speciosa [Hardy Catalpa. 

Viburnum lentago iBlack Haw 



10-20 

8-10 

6-10 

6-12 

4-8 

8 

4-8 

8 

4-8 

15 

12 

12 

12 

S-12 

8-12 

24 

12 

12 

10 

24 

4 

' 4 

12 

6 

4-6 

6-12 

6-12 

12 
12 
12 
8 
24 
4-6 



PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 93 

CUTTINGS. 

Cuttings are pieces of the branches or roots which have 
the power of growing- and forming new plants w^hen placed in 
moist sand, soil, or other material; for example, the pieces of 
the twigs on branches of many kinds of willow^s and poplars 
when taken while the tree is dormant w^ill root when placed in 
moist soil, but there are few other trees that grow as readily 
from cuttings as these; cuttings of the roots of man^ kinds 
of trees as the White Poplar, Wild Plum, Yellow Locust and 
many others that sprout from the roots will gro^v if treated 
aboat the same way as branch cuttings. 

In growing trees from cuttings the source of the cuttings 
is not of so great importance as the source of the seed from 
which the stock trees were grown., for the qualities of indi- 
vidual trees are probably not permanently or greatly changed 
by climate. For instance, trees grow^n from the cuttings of 
Russian Poplars would he as hardy in Minnesota if the 
cuttings came from St. Louis, where thjey had been growing 
for years, as they would be if imported direct from Siberia, 
however, owing to a longer growing season at St. Louis the 
wood might be of a more open texture and perhaps might not 
resist cold as well as Minnesota grown wood, but after one 
season's growth in Minnesota it would probably be as hardy. 
The same would hold true of plants propagated by any 
method of division. With the exception of willows and pop- 
lars, very few of our ornamental trees grow I'eadily from 
cuttings. The best time to make cuttings is in the fall as soon 
as the leaves will strip easily from the twigs. Most of the 
willows and poplars w^ill grow readily from cuttings made in the 
spring and even those made in summer will generally grow if 
planted in moist soil. For this purpose the smaller branches 
with the leaves removed should be used. They may also be 
rooted from growing twigs with the leaves left on provided 
the cut surfaces are placed in water as they would be if stuck 
in the soil of a swamp or treated the same as cuttings of 
geraniums. These latter ways, however, are not to be de- 
pended upon for general propagation purposes. 

The Form and Size of Cuttings is a matter upon which there 
is great difference of opinion. Cuttings of the Willow from 



94 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



one bud each and only an inch or two long- up to those a foot 
or more in diameter and ten or twelve feet in length, can 
g-enerally be made to grow, but probably the most convenient 
size for general planting is one-half inch in diameter and 
twelve inches in length. They are ganerally tied in bunches 
of 100 or 200 each for convenience in handling, and care 
should be taken to keep all the butt ends one way to facilitate 

planting. Very large cuttings are liable 
to decay in the center and are not best 
to use, although they often make a very 
rapid growth. Poles of willows and pop- 
lars are sometimes laid in furrow^s where 
they will generally sprout wherever the 

bark is laid bare and often make good 

trees. 

In Planting Cuttings of ordinary size it 
is a good plan to have the soil loose and 
then after marking off the rows the cut- 
tines can be pushed into the land the 
proper depth. If not desirable to plow 
all the land it may be loosened just where 
the rows are to come. Where a subsoil 
Fio^ure 14-. A bunch plow Can be obtained it can be made very 
of ^villo^v cuttings, useful for this purpose. 
Cuttings should be planted at an angle of about forty-five 
degrees, leaving only one bud above the surface of the 
ground and the soil should be packed firmly around them^. 





Figure i5. Planted cuttings, showing angle and depth 
at which to plant cuttings. 

Those set in a slanting position settle with the soil and 
remain firm, while those set vertically may become loosened 
by the settling of the soil near them, leaving too much of 
them exposed above the surface unless very great care is 



PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 95 

exercised in planting. The rows in the nursery should be 
about four feet apart and the cutting's about six inches apart 
in the rows, though a much less distance may sometimes be 
sufficient. In packing the soil over the cuttings great pains 
should be taken to get it very solid around the lower end, and 
if the soil is very dry the firmest pressure of the full weight 
of a man over the base of each cutting is not too great, in 
fact when the soil is dry it cannot be made too firm over the 
cutting. When the soil is moist, however, only enough pres- 
sure should be used to bring the particles in close contact 
and close up the air spaces. 

The Cultivation of Cuttings should commence shortly after 
they are planted and the top soil should be kept loosened to 
the depth of about three inches, which while not disturbing 
the solid soil around the base of the cuttings prevents 
evaporation from the soil. 

Time of Planting Cuttings. Spring cuttings may be planted 
at once where they are to grow. Autumn cuttings may be 
planted out at once, provided the land is not wet. but w^hen 
planted at this season they should be covered with soil turned 
toward them with a plow. In the spring this covering should 
be raked off before the buds swell. The ground being warm 
in autumn often causes autumn-planted cuttings of some 
kinds to root before cold weather sets in, and if made up 
before the first of October they may thus score quite a gain 
over spring-planted cuttings. If not desirable to plant in the 
autumn the bundles of cuttings may be kept over winter buried 
in moist soil, preferably that which is somewhat sandy, 
where there is no standing water, but much care should be 
taken t(; keep them from drying out. To this end the bundles 
should be buried so as not to touch each other and have two 
or three inches of soil packed in between them. If they are 
kept in a cellar, moist sawdust will be found to be good 

material to keep them in. 

The amount of growth made by cuttings varies much 

according to the kind of plant, size of cuttings, soil, etc. The 

most of our willows will make a growth of three or four feet on 

good soil in one season from ordinary cuttings. 

The Solar Pit. There are many trees that will not grow 

from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little 



96 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



before plantiD^. This is most easily accomplished by means 
of what is called the "solar pit," which owes its success to 
the fact that cutting-s root fii'st at the warmer end. It is made 
and used as follow^s: The bundles of cuttings are heeled in as 
recommended. In the spring they are taken out and buried 
close together with the butt ends uppermost in a warm sunny 
spot and covered with about six inches of soil. A hotbed 
frame with sash is then put over the spot to w^arm the soiL 

Sometimes instead of using sash 

the soil over the cuttings is cov- 
ered wdth a foot or more of fer- 
menting manure. In either case 
the soil is warmed and the for- 
mation of roots encoui'aged. In 
using the solar pit the rooting 
process should not be carried so 
far as to permit roots to show plainly, as they are liable to be 
broken off in planting out. but the cuttings should be planted 
out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the butt 
end. This healing over process is called callousing and in 
many plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots. 




Figure 16. The solar pit, 
showing bundles of cuttings 
in place under glass. 



LAYERS. 

Layers are portions of the branches of trees, shrubs or 
vines which are covered with earth without being separated 
from the parent plant and there take root and grow\ These 
aj'e cut off from the main plant in autumn or spring and form 
new plants. Almost all trees and other plants can be rooted 
in this way, but while some root very easily others require so 
long a time to do so as to make it impracticable with them. 

The growing of trees from layers is seldom practiced in 
this country, but in some European nurseries it is a common 
means by which to increase special varieties of trees. For 
this purpose what is commonly know^n as mound layering is 
often used. This consists simply of drawing the soil up 
around the sprouts that come from the stump of a tree, cover- 
ing the base of them about a foot in depth. It may be done 
at any time of the year after the sprouts are two or more feet 
high, but preferably in the spring. After the sprouts have 



GRAFTAGE. 97 

become well rooted they may be removed in spring or autumn 
and treated the same as seedlings. Layering Is sometimes 
practiced in European forests to fill up vacancies, and a sim- 
ilar method is often employed in nurseries. 

GRAFTAGE. 

Graftage refers to the growing of one plant on the stem, 
root or branch of another plant. There are several forms 
of graftage which are generally known as grafting, budding 
and inarching. It is a common practice to use graftage in the 
growing of the different varieties of fruit trees and it is also 
used to some extent in the growing of some of the varieties of 
ornamental trees that cannot be grown from seed. Trees 
that are grown by any form of graftage are seldom as long- 
lived as those grown on their own roots and these methods 
should be avoided when it is practicable to do so. These 
methods are not much used in common practice and conse- 
quently are not discussed at lengtii here. 

Inarching is a rather unusual way of growing plants. It 
works on the principle that when the growing stems, branches 
and roots of the same or closely allied plants are held closely 
together for some time they become united. Such unions of 
roots are frequently found in woodlands; in some cases the 
roots of the same trees and in others the roots of different 
trees become grown together. Occasionally also trees are 
found grown together by their branches or stems. Inarching 
is sometimes used for growing the Cutleaf Birch, in which 
case the sprouts from a stump of a Cutleaf Birch or the twigs 
from a small tree laid on the ground are tied to small Birch 
seedlings which have been grown in pots and plunged to their 
rims in the ground near the tree. In doing this the bark is 
removed for about two inches at the point of contact of the 
twig and seedling, which are then tied firmly together. It 
should be done by the middle of June, but will often be suc- 
cessful if done even a month later. They should be kept 
together until the leaves fall and then the branches from the 
parent tree should be cut away leaving the seedlings with the 
twigs 2:rown fast to them. These should be carefully heeled-in 
over winter and in the spring the seedlings should be cut oft* 
just above the union so as to throw all their strength into the 
adopted twig of the Cutleaf Birch. This method may also be 
used to replace lost branches on trees or vines. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NURSERY WORK AND PRACTICE IN RAISING FOREST AND 
ORNAMENTAL TREES. 

Nursery. This term is applied to a plot of land used for 
raising- plants that are intended for planting- elsewhere for 
their final g-rowth. 

Soil and Cultivation. The best soil for a g-eneral nursery is a 
deep, rich, reasonably level, retentive upland. It is customary 
to grow most of the nursery crops in rows so that they may 
be readily cultivated. The land should be plowed deeply 
when the crop is planted and the surface soil kept loose and 
fine during- all the early part of the growing- season or until 
about the middle of July. If the land that has to be used for 
a nursery is rather shallow, it should be gradually deepened 
by plowing- from year to year and if inclined to dry out, the 
addition of large quantities of organic matter together with 
constant cultivation will do much to remedy these defects. 

The cultivation of a nursery or young forest plantation, 
provided the latter is planted in rows, should consist in 
keeping the land stirred to the depth of three inches, thus 
giving a dust blanket which will protect from drouth. After the 
first of August much cultivation is likely to encourage a late 
autumn grow^th which should be avoided, but a moderate 
quantity of buckwheat or oats may be sown then and be al- 
lowed to grow the remainder of the season to serve as a 
winter protection to hold snow^s and prevent the heaving out 
of the young seedlings by frost. 

GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. 

Nursery stock of different kinds has come to be knov^^n by 
such convenient names as seedlings, transplants, street trees, 
forest-pulled seedlings, etc. 

Seedlings are young plants grown from seed that have never 
been transplanted and are generally designated by their size 



GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. 99 

or age. They form the cheapest class of nursery stock and 
are used largely for starting windbreaks. 




Fig:tire 17. A bunch of Green Ash Seedlings. 

Transplants are seedlings that have been at least once trans- 
planted and are designated by the size and number of times 
they have been moved. They are higher in price than seed- 
lings but with some kinds of trees they are much more likely 
to grow and may be w^ell worth the extra price. Evergreens, 
especially pines, will seldom do well unless once transplanted 
before being set in a permanent place. 

Street Trees include the trees of large size which are used 
for street, shade and ornamental purposes. To be of the best 
quality they should have been transplanted two or more times 
and have received some attention in the way of pruning so as 
to give them a good form. Such trees vary much in quality 
and price, but the best are necessarily rather expensive. 

Forest-pulled Deciduous Trees of small size can often be 
obtained at a very low price and maybe as desirable as those 
that are nursery grown. 

Forest-pulled Evergreen Seedlings may also be desirable but 
too often they have poor roots or have been so injured by 
poor handling that they are generally worthless. 

Forest-pulled Shade Trees sometimes grow very well, bat they 
are always inferioi* to good nursery-grown trees. They are 
greatly improved by having their roots shortened two years 
before they are to be removed, and when so treated grow very 
well . 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Transplanting is simply the removal of the plant. It may 
Be to some permanent place as a park, lawn, or street, or it 
may be done for the purpose of improving the root system 
and to give the tree more room to grow. By shortening the 
long roots the root system is made more compact and better 
able to withstand subsequent removal. This may be done by 



100 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



transplanting or by cutting around the tree with a spade or 
tree digger. It is especially desirable to do this to trees that 
are not easily moved on account of their long branching roots 
such as the Birch, or to those that have tap roots like 
the Oak and Walnut. It is on account of their having had 
their roots shortened so they can all be moved with the tree 
that nursery-grown trees are generally superior to others. 




Fig. 18. Extra good roots on a forest 
grown Elm, used as a street tree. 

In transplanting it is important to take up a sufficient 
amount of roots to support the plant, and as a rule the more 
roots the better the conditions for sfrowth. Very long roots 
should be shortened unless the tree is removed to a permanent 
place, in which case all the good roots should be left on the 
tree. All bruised or broken roots should be cut off in either 
case, and the top of the tree shortened to correspond. In 
transplanting ti*ees they should be set one or two inches lower 
than they formerly stood and the roots should be spread out 
in the holes without crowding. ■ It is customary to plant many 
kinds of small trees in furrows made with a plow. 

Very large trees, those over six inches in diameter, are 
sometimes successfully planted in winter by taking them up 
with a ball of earth. This is done by digging a trench around 
the tree late in the autumn, deep enough to cut most of the 
roots but far enough away from the tree to leave a large ball 
of earth. The trench is then filled in with a mulch of some 
kind, and when the o*round is frozen the tree is moved with 



TRANSPLANTING. 101 

the ball of earth attached, to the hole which has been pre- 
viously prepared and kept free from frost. 

After trees have been moved or had their roots shortened 
in sorae other way, they should generally not be transplanted 
again for at least one or two years during which time they 
will have overcome the injuries done to their root system. The 
time which should thus elapse will vary with the kind of tree 
and also with the amount of injury done. Where the injury 
is severe a much longer time wall be required for recovery 
than where it is slight. 

Time to Transplant. Planting of trees should always be done 
when they are dormant or just as they start into growth in the 
spring, which is generally from the middle to last of April. If 
for any reason it is desirable to risk the moving of trees late 
in the spring after the leaves have started they should be cutback 
severely, all the leaves removed, and great pains be taken to 
secure all the roots and to prevent their drying out. Very 
hardy deciduous trees as the Elm. Cottonwood, Box Elder 
and Ash can often be successfully moved in \;he fall if the 
ground is moist at the time of removal but great care must be 
taken to w^ork the soil in very compactly between the roots so 
there will be no large air spaces among them. If the trees 
are large it is a good plan to stake them so they cannot be 
blown about by the wind. The more tender trees should not 
be transplanted in this section in autumn and even the 
hardiest kinds should never be moved at this season unless 
the soil is moist. 

Transplanting Evergreens. When seedling evergreens are 
two years old they should be ti-anspl anted and this should be 
done about once in three years afterwards until they are 
moved to their permanent places. As evergreens are very 
sensitive to being moved this requires more care than with 
most deciduous trees. The most important point is to not 
allow the roots to have even the appearance of being dry. 
They may be transplanted in the spring as soon as the ground 
works easily and the roots have white tips and they may be 
safely transplanted even up to the time that the new growth 
shows about an inch but at this late time more care must be 
taken in doing the work than when it is done earlier. Ever- 



102 . ELEMENTARY FORESTRY, 

greens can sometimes be moved successfully in August or 
even in the autumn if they are to be carried only a short dis- 
tance and the conditions of the weather and land are favor- 
able, but this is not a time for general planting and it is 
sejdom advisable to do it at this season. 

The very general error is current that June is the best 
time to plant out evergreens. They may be transplanted at 
this season successfully if the conditions are just right in 
every particular, but they are much more liable to failure than 
when the work is done earlier in the season. At whatever time 
of the year evergreens are to be moved the work should be 
done in such a manner as to protect the roots from having 
even the appearance of being dry, for if dried ever so little 
the probabilities of their living are much lessened. The kind 
of treatment that would be considered all right for apple trees 
might be fatal to evergreens as they are much more suscep- 
tible to injury from drying. 

In addition to the above precautions to be taken when 
moving evergreens, it is desirable to shorten back the limbs 
about one-third to compensate for the loss of roots. Of 
course this shortening should not be done in such a way as to 
disfigure the tree, but w^hen the roots are in any way severely 
mutilated, the whole top makes more of a draft on them for 
moisture than the roots can supply. This pruning is not so 
necessary in the case of young seedling evergreens or nursery 
grown trees that have been recently transplanted for when they 
are moved their root systems are not seriously injured. 

Very small evergreens and other small plants are often 
set in trenches made with a spade, as shown in figure 19. For 
this method the soil must be loose and yet sufficiently compact 
so that it can be cut with a spade and not crumble before the 
plants can be set out. The beds are made about six feet wide 
and a board of this length and six inches wide should be 
used. The soil is thrown out with a spade (^1) to the depth of 
about six inches, but no wider than necessary to just take in 
the roots. The plants are then placed in position by hand 
and a little soil pushed asrainst them to hold them in place. 
(B) The trench is then half filled and the soil firmly com- 
pacted by the feet. The remainder of the soil is then put in 



TRANSPLANTING. 



103 



and leveled off, the board is changed to the other side of the 
row first planted and the planting- is continued in the same 
way. (CandD.) Such close planting as this is only desirable 
when it is intended to give special care to the plants, as by 
shading or watering.. Plants should not remain more than two 
or three years in so close a bed before they are transplanted. 
When it is desirable to set out small seedlings in rows, instead 
of beds, a tight line may be used in place of the board. 

Heeling-in. This term is applied to the temporary covering 
of the roots of trees with earth to keep them from drying out 
after they are dug and until they are planted. If they are to 
be kept for only a few days comparatively little care is 




Figure 19. Successive steps in planting 3-oung evergreen or 
other very small seedlings, (a) Board in place and trench pnrt- 
ly opened, (b) Seedlings in place and partly covered, (c) New 
trench portly opened, (d) New trench with seedlings in place. 

needed in covering, but if they are to be kept for several 
weeks or over winter, especially if the weather is dry, great 
care must be taken to work the fine soil in among the roots 
and to pack it solid. A good way of doing this is -as follows: 
Select a dry, mellow piece of ground and dig a trench just 
large enough to take in the roots of the trees when laid close 
together in a single row. Place the trees or seedlings in this 
trench in an upright position a few at a time, and cover the 
roots firmly and deeply with soil taken from close in front of 
the first trench, thus making a trench for the next row. In 
this section if Maples, Cherries and other trees not of the 
greatest hardiness are to remain heeled in all winter, 
it is a good plan to bend the tops down and cover with earth. 



104 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



This is only necessary for winter protection. Tlie neglect to 

properly heel in nursery stock as soon as it is received is 

undoubtedly a frequent cause of failure. 

Trees and cuttings will sometimes get so dry in shipment 

that the bark shrivels. In such cases the best treatment is to 

bury them entirely for a few days, which will often enable 
them to recover. 




Figure 20. HEELING IN. Various stages of the operation. 
(a.) Row of trees with roots covered, (b) A row bent down and 
the tops covered at (c). 

Soaking in water will answer the same purpose, but unless 
very carefully done is likely to injure the wood. 

PRUNING. 

Pruning should be avoided as much as possible and yet 
be done sufficiently to secure the elTect desired. If it is begun 
early in the life of a tree, no large branches need ever be 
removed, the most desirable pruning being the directing of the 
growth by pinching ofif the buds that would develop into 
undesirable branches; but this is impracticable on a large 
scale and for this reason in ordinary practice it is often 
necessary to do more extensive pruning. 

The Purpose in Pruning Trees is to give them forms that are 
desirable for the purpose intended; for example, a tree for the 
lawn or windbreak may be most desirable when covered w^ith 
branches even down to the ground, while street trees should 
have a trunk free from branches for eight or ten feet from the 
ground. Many of the evergreens and some other trees used 
for ornament naturally take on so regular and desirable a 
form that it is not necessary to prune them except perhaps to 
pinch or cut olT an extra leading shoot that is likely to make 
a forked top, while the White Elm, Soft Maple and others 



PRUNING. 105 

need occasional pruning- to remove or shorten awkward 
branches, at least while the tree is young and growing rapidly. 

The Proper Time for Pruning is determined by the effect of the 
operation upon the health of the tree. Dead branches may 
be safely removed at any season. The removal of live 
branches during the growing season lessens the leaf surface 
and hence checks growth. Pruning when the tree is dormant 
results in a more vigorous growth in the remaining branches. 
Wounds made by pruning just as trees are starting into 
growth do not heal over as readily as those made earlier in the 
spring or during the period of active growth in June. Wounds 
made in autumn or early winter generally heal over well, 
but are more likely to cause bad injuries than if made at the 
close of the winter. These considerations and practical ex- 
perience have brought about the following conclusions as to 
the best time for pruning: 

Large branches are most safely removed during the latter 
part of winter before growth starts. Small branches may be 
safely removed at this time or during the growing season, 
preferably about the middle of June, but such very hardy 
trees as the Elm, Ash, Box Elder, White Willow and Cotton- 
wood may be safely pruned at any time in autumn, winter or 
spring, while the Mountain Ash, Apple, Plum and Wild 
Cherry are liable to injury if pruned at any but the most 
favorable seasons. 

Among the directions to be followed in good pruning are 
the following: 

(1) Do not cut off a single branch unless you have a 
good idea of what you wish to accomplish and the probable 
effect of so doing on the tree: better not prune at all than 
to do it without considering the consequences. 

( 2 ) Avoid doing very much pruning at one time, especial- 
ly on small street trees, which, if they have all their branches 
removed from the trunks to their final height, are likely to 
make too much growth at the top for the trunk to support well 
in high winds. A better way is to remove a part of the lower 
branches and shorten back in summer those that are to be re- 

• moved later; by such treatment a large part of the strength 
of the tree goes into the top without increasing the size of the 



106 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

lower branches, which may be removed in a year or two with- 
out injury to the tree. 

(3) After pruning paint the wounds with good white lead 
paint to keep the wood from decaying and the injuries from 
thus becoming permanent. This is not so necessary on very 
hardy trees as on those that are somewhat tender. 

(4) Where branches rub together it is generally best to 
remove one of them. 

(5) Where bad crotches are being formed by the develop- 
ment of two leaders, severely check the growth of one of them 
by shortening it, thus throwing more sap into the other and 
making it the leading shoot. 

(6) Prevent the formation of long branches by shorten- 
ing them. This is especially desirable with the Soft Maple 
which has a tendency to form long branches that are likely to 
break off unless occasionally pruned. 

(7) Where trees have lost their leaders, prun-i so as to 
develop one of the side branches into a leading shoot. This 
the tree always attempts to do itself, but a little judicious 
pruning will greatly aid it. 

(8) Every species of trees and shrubs has its own natural 
form and in pruning do not try to make all of them of one 
shape, but study the natural form of each kind of tree and 
encourage the development of this form. 

(9) When trees are full of frost, the wood cracks very 
easily, therefore do not prune in very cold weather for bad 
wounds may then be easily formed. 

Treatment of Crooked Trees. It is common to have some 
trees in the nursery that are of vigorous, healthy growth 
but so crooked as to be nearly w^orthless. The proper treat- 
ment for most of our shade trees when in this condition in the 
nursery, if anything is to be made of them, is to cut them off 
at the surface of the ground early in the spring and then 
select one of the good strong sprouts that' come from the roots 
of each tree and train it into a straight stem and cut away the 
others. Treated in this way well-formed trees may soon be 
grown. Such treatment may also be desirable with small 
street trees that have their stems hopelessly injured. How- 
ever, trees that to the novice may seem hopelessly crooked 



STRHET TREES. 107 

may only have crooks in them that will be outgrown in a few 
years. 

STREET TREES. 

Success with street trees is perhaps more dependent on 
good soil about the roots than on any other one factor. If 
the land is so very sandy or gravelly as to be subject to 
drouth at least two cubic yards (two full two horse loads) 
should be taken from where each tree is to be planted and 
the same amount of good clay or loam substituted for it. If 
in subsequent years the trees outgrow the limits of the material 
supplied, more of it should be added, and if this consists 
largely of stable manure, so much the better, provided it does 
not come into contact with the roois of the trees. It is 
important to do this work thoroughly, for one tree well 
planted is better than a dozen poorly set out. 

Kinds of Trees. The best trees for street planting in this 
section are the White Elm, Hackberry, Green Ash, Basswood, 
Box Elder and Soft Maple. All of these trees do well in good 
soil, and with the exception of the Soft Maple they all do 
well in rather inferior land. Evergreens may sometimes be 
used to advantage along narrow drives, but they are seldom 
desirable as street trees. The trees planted should be about 
two to four inches in diameter near the ground, eight or ten 
feet high, and of thrifty growth. Much larger trees are some- 
times set out, but it is not advisable, as a rule, to plant those 
that are over four inches in diameter. Smaller trees are 
often planted and do well if properly cared for, but need more 
attention in directing their growth than those tha,t are larger. 
But small, thrifty trees are much better for street planting 
than large stunted trees. In all cases it is more important to 
have plenty of good roots than a large top, as a top can soon 
be developed if the roots are srood. 

Distance Apart. The distance between trees depends on the 
kind planted and the quality of the land. On rich land in 
this section the trees named should be put 40 feet apart; in 
fairly good soil, about 30 feet, and in poor soil 20 feet apart. 
This gives sufficient room for good development but where a 
quick effect is wanted it is a good plan to set the trees much 
thicker than this and use Cottonwood. Willow, or similar fast 



108 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

growing trees to alternate with one of the kinds named as de- 
sirable, w^ith the expectation of cutting out the less valuable 
when it shall have commenced to crowd the more desirable 
kinds. 

Planting. Provided the soil is in the proper condition, the 
next consideration is the proper planting of the tree. The 
preparation for this should consist in digging a hole of suf- 
ficient size to take in the roots without crowding. If the subsoil 
is very solid clay it should be thoroughly loosened up, and 
w^here practicable it is a good plan to dig a trench to the loose 
soil over a w^ater pipe or sew^er, for by this means the roots 
get into loose soil and drainage is secure which is often much 
needed on such land. Sometimes a very stiff hard-pan can be 
broken up to advantage by exploding a small dynamite cart- 
ridge in a deep hole made with a crow-bar. 

Before setting the tree, it should have all broken and dead 
roots cut off. It should then be set an inch or two deeper 
than it had been growing, the discoloration above the 
roots indicating the depth at which it had stood. If, how- 
ever, good drainage cannot be secured, the tree can be planted 
less deeply, and then have a mound made around it. Fill in 
about the roots slowly, being careful (should the tree have a 
great number of fibrous roots ) to w^orkthe earth well in among 
them and under the butt of the tree. Fine soil free from large 
stones should be used for this purpose. Pack the soil in firmly, 
if reasonably dry, with the heels or better still with a rammer, 
making it as solid as possible around the roots. The object 
in doing this is to leave no air spaces about them. It is not 
a good plan to put water into the hole before the tree is set 
but it may be put in when the roots are just covered and al- 
lowed to soak away before the remaining soil is put in. As 
a rule, however, little is gained by watering if the trees have 
not leafed out and the moist soil is packed firmly around the 
roots. Water is most needed after grow^th starts. 

Mulching. Newly planted street trees are much helped by 
a mulch of straw, hay, or well-rotted manure; the latter is 
best as it also furnishes plant food, but hot manure is liable 
to injure the trunk if piled against it. These materials pre- 
vent the soil from drying out and this is especially beneficial 
if the trees are artificially watered. 

Watering should be done thoroughly or not at all. One 



PRUNING. 



109 



good watering- should keep the ground moist for two or three 
weeks in the driest weather we liave if the land is heavily 
mulched when the water is applied. For a goodjwatering in 
a dry time about one barrel of water should be given to each 
street or lawn tree. A hollow should be made around the tree 
and covered with mulch before the water is applied. This 
same amount of water might be applied at the rate of one or 
two pailfuls a day and not be of the least benefit to the tree, 
if applied to the bare surface of the ground. 




Fig. 21. Soft Maple Fig. 22. Soft Maple ^'^ Fig. 23. Soft Maple 

not pruned since it was once pruned showing 'several times pruned 

planted out. Liable to close head that is not preserving a main cen- 

break in its crotches at liable to break down.^ tral axis. A good form, 

any time. A bad form. A good form. 

The Pruning of Street Trees at the time they are set out is an 
important matter. If the trees are very 'tall and slender it is 
a good plan to cut them off at about 10 feet from the ground 
and trim off all side branches as shown in -figure 24. For 
trees that have been pulled from the woods, this is generally 
the best treatment, while for nursery grown trees that have had 
plenty of room to develop a good top it may sometimes be 
best to trim so as to leave part of the top. If the trees are 
trimmed to bare poles before planting some little pruning will 
be required each season for a number of years to develop 
good tops while if they had well formed^tops in the nursery 
and were shortened back at planting timcmuch less attention 
will be necessary. 



110 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY 



In a row of Elms or other trees there will often be found 
peculiar individual shapes. Some of the trees will take on 

desirable forms, while others will be 
spreading and awkward and perhaps 
have a tendency to ci*aek in the branches. 
In some cases a little extra pruning will 
bring such unfortunates into shape, but 
often they are incorrigible and are best 
replaced by other trees with better forms. 

Protection should always be given street 
trees as soon as they are set out and this 
should consist of something that will pro- 
tect them from sunscald, gnawing of 
horses, and whittling by thoughtless 
boys. A good temporary cover is af- 
forded by wrapping the trunk with gunny 
sacking or similar matei'iaJ but a more 
desirable protection is afforded by a 
^. ^, ^, ^ ^ slatted wooden frame or box for each 

Fig. 24. Elm street 
tree properly trimm- tree, 
ed for planting out. 




CHAPTER VIII. 



'■-^^m. 



INJURIES TO TREES. 

The causes of injur}/ to tree growth are many and various; 
some affecting principally the cultivated trees in windbreaks 
and shelter belts, and others affecting the forest plantations 
and large areas of timber; some injure or destroy the trees or 
tree seeds and others do damage to the land on which they 
grow. 

Saw-Flies and Tent-Caterpillars. At present perhaps the most 
serious injuries to cultivated trees in this section* result from 
the neglect to take precautions against leaf-eating insects, 
such as saw-flies and tent-caterpillars. These injuries may 

be largely prevented by 
the use of Paris Green 
in a liquid form, ap- 
plied by means of a 
force pump, using the 
solutions from a barrel 
carried in a wagon or 
on a stone boat. An or- 
dinary spraying nozzle 
should be used with a 
sufficient length of hose 
to reach up into the 
tree. In order to reach 
the tops of the trees it 
may be necessary to 
have a raised platform 
on the wagon and to 
attach the nozzle to the 
end of a long bamboo 
pole. In most prairie 
groves this is practica- 



•%»•' 



:^ ''■%*; 



Figure 25. Elm tree that has been 
planted five j'ears and was pruned to a 
bare pole when set out. 



112 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

ble, but with very high trees it is very difficult if not entirely 
impracticable. 

Borers and Lice. These sometimes cause serious injury, but 
it is seldom practicable to combat them successfully. It is 
generally better to avoid them by planting the kinds that are 
least subject to injury from their attacks. Where lice are 
injurious, kerosene emulsion or strong tobacoo water are 
good remedies. In the ca.se of small trees that can be easily 
enclosed in a tent, the best remedy is tobacco smoke. 




Figure 26. White Willow windbreak seriously injured by successive 
attacks of saw fly larvae. A common source of injury to willows. 

Mice and Rabbits. Seedlings and small trees of some kinds 
are liable to injury from rodents, such as mice and i*abbits, 
which gnaw the bark near the surface of the ground and per- 
haps girdle the tree. They are most likely to do this when 
the ground is covered with snow, for this furnishes them with 
a protection under which they can do their mischief without 
fear of being molested. In the case of small seedlings such 
injuries may be largely prevented by plowing a furrow or 
setting boards on edge around the seed bed. If, after each 
snow fall, the snow is trodden down so as to make a solid path 
between the seedlings and the grass or woodland whence the 
mice come, they will be kept out, as they will not try to work 
through the solid snow. Seedlings that are badly girdled in 
winter should be cut off at the surface of the ground to 



INJURIES TO TREES. 113 

encourage sprouts from the roots. To prevent the gnawing" 
of larger trees, paint the trunks with a cement or lime wash 
made rather thick and containing Paris Gr-een in the propor- 
tion of one tablespoonful of Paris Green to a pailful of the 
wash. It skim milk is used in mixing the wash instead of 
water the material sticks better. Trees that are gnawed badly 
may often be saved by coatinsr the injured surface with graft- 
ing wax, blue clay, or other similar material soon after the 
damacre is done so as to prevent the seasoning of the wood, 
and thus give it a chance to heal over; where the injury is 
close to the ground it should be covered w^ith earth. 

The Pocket Gopher. Trees are sometimes injured by pocket 
gophers eating the roots. Trapping or poisoning may be 
resorted to or bisulphide of carbon may be used to suffocate 
them in their burrows. 

Birds. Most of our birds are helpful in various ways, 
such as distributing seeds and in destroying injurious insects 
anf] such small injurious animals as mice and gophers. They 
also add to the beauty of our woods and fields and to our 
pleasure and recreation. But some kinds are provokingly 
injurious by eating the seeds we wish to gather, or by digging 
up newly-sown seeds. Where they are troublesome on seed 
beds they may be kept away by coveinng the bed w^ith wire 
netting, which will also serve to keep away other animals. If 
only birds are troublesome, mosquito netting may be used, or 
the seeds may be given a light coating of red lead and dried 
in land plaster or flour before sowing. 

The sap -sucker does considerable injury to some trees by 
making holes in the bark for the purpose of securing insects 
which go thei-e to feed on the sap. They are sometimes so 
very injurious that it is necessary to destroy them. The 
Apple, Box Elder, Maple and most other trees are subject to 
their injuries. 

Cattle. The pasturing of cows, horses, sheep and other 
animals in the woodlands is generally a poor practice, as these 
animals brouse off many of the young seedlings, especially 
those of deciduous trees, such as the Oak, Basswood, Birch, 
Cherry and others, though they seldom eat coniferous trees. 
They also compact the ground and destroy many small seed- 
lings by thtir continued tramping, especially w^hen present in 



114 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



large numbers. Deer, moose, elk and other similar animals 
are likewise injurious in forests and when abundant may do 
much damage, though on account of their comparatively 
small number they do but slight injury. 

Severe Winters. These may injure many kinds of young 
seedlings which ivhen two or three years old will be perfectly 
hardy Seedlings of such kinds should be dug at the end of 
the first season's srrowth and be heeled in over winter or pro- 
tected by a mulch or earth covering in winter. 

Alternate Freezing and Thawing. Seedlings are often thrown 
out of the ground by alternate freezing and thawing, and in 
this way have their roots broken. This is most likely to Iiap- 




/"a^ 



Figure 27. HEAVING OUT BY Frost. (a) Tree in 
natural position, (b) Drawn up by alternate freezing 
and thawing. 

pen where the ground is bare: if covered with leaves or grass 
or shaded in other ways this seldom happens. The best pre- 
ventive is to mulch the surface soil with leaves or other simi- 
lar material, but as mice generally like to live in such places 



INJURIES TO TREES. 115 

poison should be used. It should be placed under the mulch 
in tin cans laid on their sides so they may be readily found in 
spring and will not be liable to poison the birds. When seed- 
lings are thrown out of the ground by frost they should be 
pushed back and have the earth pressed against them as soon 
s the ground is thawed in the spring. 

Late Spring Frosts are common in the low lands of this 
section. They injure the trees by killing the new spring 
growth after it has started several inches. A large number of 
trees are seriously injured in this way and are classed as 
frost tender trees, and those that are not liable to this injury are 
termed frost hardy trees. Among conifers the spruces and bal- 
sams are much injured by late spring frosts while our pines and 
the Tamarack. Red Cedar and Arborvitae are seldom if ever in- 
jured in this way. Deciduous trees recover from such injuries 
more quickly than evergreens. Among the deciduous trees 
most liable to injury from this cause are the Ash, Mulberry, 
Oak, Maple, Basswood, Black Walnut, Butternut and Box 
Elder, though they do not all suffer in the same degree. 
Among those that are not sensitive to late frosts are the Elm, 
Willow, Poplar. Birch, Hackberry, Wild Black Cherry and 
Mountain Ash. 

Sleet Storms occasionally do much damage by breaking the 
limbs. Little can be done to relieve the trees but preventive 
measures may be taken. If no large crotches are allowed to 
iorm in trees and growth kept as near as possible to one 
central shaft, or the longer branches shortened so as they will 
not exert too great a leverage, the losses may be reduced to a 
minimum. Trees having brittle wood or weak crotches as the 
Soft Maple are much more liable to this injury than those 
with tough wood as the willows, oaks and elms and need 
more pruning on this account. Evergreens are likely to be 
broken by heavy snows that freeze on the leaves. This may be 
prevented on lawn and shade trees by shaking the snow off 
from them before it freezes. 

Frost Cracks are a rather infrequent injury caused by the 
cracking of trees from center to outside due to uneven con- 
traction in very cold weather, it is generally accompanied by 
s, loud report. Such cracks are often eight or ten feet long 



116 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



and occasionally longer. They generally close up again when 
the wood thaws out and during the following summer grow 
over only to burst open again the next w^inter. This alternate 
bursting open and growing over may continue for many 
years until very conspicuous and peculiar wounds are formed. 
In such cracks insects and rot-producing fungi find favorable 
lodging places and as a result trees are seriously injured and 
are liable to decay in the trunk. The»-e are no practical reme- 
dies for such injuries. 




Figure 28. Trees heavily loaded ^Yith ice after a'sleet storm. 

Wind. Injuries from w^ind are common where thinning is 
done to a great extent at one time about shallow rooted trees, 
such as Spruce growing on moist soil. These injuries can be 
avoided only by thinning gradually. In many such cases on 
timber la.nds thinning is impracticable and it is^then best to 



INJURIES TO TREES. 



117 



cut all the merchantable timber, for if left it is sure to be 
blown down. 

On our prairies where the soil is light and easily blown 
away it is not uncommon to have young seedling- trees serious- 
ly injured by the blowing away of the. soil around the roots 
which ofien leaves them uncovered for three or more inches. 
This injury usually takes place in the spring and may be 
almost entirely prevented by seeding the land to oats about 
'' the middle of July at the time of the 
last cultivation. Sown at this season 
the oats form a good sod that serves 
to hold the soil in place until spring 
when it is easily broken up bycultiva- 
ation, but ev^en then the roots prevent 
the blowing away of the soil. Occa- 
sional strips of grass are also a pre- 
ventive of this injury. 

Snow Crust. The settling of a snow 
crust that has formed on the top of 
deep snow drifts msiy cause injury to 
young trees by stripping off their 
branches and breaking the stems. It 
may be prevented by breaking up the 
crust or by thinly scattering over the 
snow some sand, ashes or other mater- 
ial that will absorb the sun's heat and 
cause the crust to melt before the snow 
underneath melts. This injury seldom 
occurs except under drifts and a little 
good judgement in selecting the loca- 
tion and arranging the windbreak so 
as to prevent drifts may obviate this 
source of injury. 

Drouth. Injuries from drouth may 
be prevented to a great extent by 
constant cultivation, but where this 
cannot be done mulching is a good 

Fi^. 29. Old Frost , ^.^ , * .. .. ^ ^-u • • 4. 

Cracks in Sugar Maple. substitute. Attention to thinning at 




118 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



the proper time so as not to g-et the soil tilled with roots will 
also help to prevent injury from drouth. Willow windbreaks 
can be grown without any cultivation after being once well 
established in the driest portion of Minnesota if they are kept 
mulched with straw or litter for six feet on each side. Mulch- 
ing also prevents injury from severe freezing of the roots. 

Sun-scald. Nearly all of our cultivated trees may be in- 
jured by sun-scald. This occurs almost without exception on 





Fi^. 80. Trunk of 
Soft Ala pie badly sun- 
scalded. 



Fie:. 31. Section of Trunk 
OF Sun-scalded Basswood. 
Sho win o: dead bark and am o ant 
of wood decayed. Thetop and 
roots of the tree from which 
this section \\^as cut were per- 
fectly healthy at •♦he time when 
the trunk broke off at the sun- 
scald. 



the southwest side of unprotected trees of Hard and Soft 
Maple, Basswood, Box Elder, Black Walnut, etc. Oaks and 
all other trees are occasionally affected. It never occurs 
when the trees are sufficiently close together to shade their 
trunks, and for this reason the grow^th of shrubs and low 
branching trees should be encouraged on the south and west 
sides of groves where they do not crowd the principal kinds. 



FOREST FIREx 119 

Street trees liable to this injury may be protected by burlap 
sacking-, straw, or other similar material. When injuries 
from sunscald occur, the loose bark should be cut off down . 
to the live growth and the wood coated with paint, to prevent 
its seasoning-, or the wound wrapped in cloth. Trees inclined 
to the northeast are most liable to sunscald because the rays 
of the sun strike the trunk more nearly , perpendicularly. 

Broken Branches and Decay. Large wounds are sometimes 
formed by the breakins: down of a branch or by decay which 
may have started in a wound made by pruning-. In such 
cases the broken and decayed wood should be cleared away 
and the exposed surfaces treated with a very heavy coat of white 
lead paint, grafting- wax or other material that will keep out 
water and disease. If the wound is very large or forms a hole 
in which water is likely to stand it should be cleaned and 
painted as recommended and then covered with a sheet of 
zinc carefully tacked on and the joints closed with grafting 
wax to keep out water. 

FOREST FIRES. 

Foi*est fires are the one great cause of injuries to forests 
in this section. All other causes of injury are very slight in 
comparison to it. and could this one cause be removed it is 
more than probable that the natural renewal of our timber 
lands would be sufficient to maintain the timber industries of 
Minnesota for very many years to come. 

Fires in this state have destroyed large areas of pine log 
timber before it could be made accessible to market. It is 
undoubtedly true that in this section of the country more pine 
timber has been destroyed by fire than the lumbermen have 
ever cut. 

On account of this great danger to pine timber and on ac- 
count of high taxes, the lumbermen have been discouraged from 
holding .their pine lands for a second growth but prefer to cut 
every tree that can be made into salable lumber and then abandon 
the land. But even under such conditions it occasionally hap- 
pens that the land is not burned over or only slightly burned for 
a number of years when it will generally produce a good second 
cutting. Some land in this state that was first cut in the early 
days of the logging industry, when it was customary to cut 



120 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

nothing- but that which would make a ten-inch log-, have been 
log-ged two or three times since and with a good profit. 

Since fires render most of the cut-over lands in this state 
entirely non-productiv^e, and since the annual increase on ihe 
trees that should grow on such land is at least 185 feet board 
measure per acre, it is plain that the loss to the people of the 
state on the 6,000.000 or more acres of cut-over lands is very- 
large. 

Forest fires not only destroy a very great amount of 
property each year, but they occasionally cause great loss of 
life. In the Hinckley fire of 1894, (which was entirely the re- 
sult of ignorance and neglect) there is known to have been 
424 lives lost, besides a large amount of property, and 
occasionally in other years settlers have had to flee for their 
lives and leave their houses and crops to be burned. 

It is impossible for fires to run ov^er any forest land with- 
out doing great injury. The amount of damage done by them 
is difficult to estimate and varies much according to the time 
of year, the age and condition of the trees, the soil and the 
severity of the fire. 

Forest fires are sometfmes grouped into the three follow- 
ing classes: (1) Underground Fires that do not show much on 
the surface but which destroy the roots of trees and greatly 
injure the soil. (2) Surface Fires which burn the leaves and 
grass in the woods and do much damage by destroying the 
forest floor and killing the young seedlings. (3) Crown Fires, 
which run in the crowns of the trees and when once started are 
almost irresistible. The latter are one of the worst forms and 
are generally accompanied by surface and often by under- 
ground fires. 

The Killing of Mature Trees by any of these three kinds of 
fires entails but a slight loss comparatively to the timber, 
providing it is accessible to market, as the trees can be cut 
the following winter. But fires that kill the mature growth 
generally do great damage by killing the young growth and 
destroying the forest floor. Timber that is allowed to stand 
more than one or two years after being killed by fire gener- 
ally suffers much from insects and fungous diseases. This is 
most evident in the case of White Pine, Birch, Poplar and 



FOREST FIRES. 121 

similar soft woods, but even hard woods are injured by 
insects if allowed to stand long- after being killed. 

The Killing of Half-Grown Trees by forest fires causes a loss 
that amounts not only to the value of the timber trees but to 
the value of the seeding- and shading- trees and the forest 
floor. The value of the trees alone in this case is not a fair 
standard by which to measure the loss, since at this stage of 
their growth they are making their most rapid increase and 
their value should be computed as the amount upon which the 
increase is paying a good interest. For instance, the Divi- 
sion of Forestry of the Minnesota Experiment Station found 
land that was well stocked with young White Pine ( six inches 
in diameter and fifty feet high) that could be bought for about 
one dollar per acre, and yet the annual increase on the trees 
would paj five per cent on a valuation of $100,000 for the next 
twenty years. The reason why such a state of affairs exists 
is that there is such great danger from fire that the invest- 
ment fails to command the money of careful investors. 

The Destruction of the Forest Floor by fire greatly lessens the 
probability of an immediate renewal of valuable tree growth 
upon the land and therefore is one of the greatest injuries to 
forests. The value of the forest floor can hardly be estimated 
but the expense that would be necessary after afire to produce 
conditions as favorable to the seedino- of our timber lands as 
those found in unburned forests would probably be not less 
than twenty-five dollars per acre. 

Light Fires which repeatedly run over the ground and which 
by the casual observer are thought to be of no importance 
often destroy the seeds in the surface soil and the young tree 
seedlings besides injuring the forest floor, and unless such 
fives are prevented it is impossible to secure a good growth 
of timber on any land. The fires that burn over the land 
shortly after it has been logged and which feed on the tops 
and other waste parts of the trees, generally destroy a large 
number of young seedling trees, perhaps all of them so that 
in order to secure a new growth seeds must be brought from a 
distance. Owing to the great heat developed by such fires in 
dry weather, they are unusually destructive and leave very 
liUle humus in the top soil. For this reason land that has 



122 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



been burned over in this way is a long-time in recovering from 
its injuries. Besides the injuries already cited, all forest fires 
kill or drive out much of the game in our forests. 

Spring Fires are very injurious to trees and especially ten- 
der seedlings for trees in the spring of the year are full of 
sap and can endure but little heat. 

Summer and Autumn Fires generally run deep into the ground 
and if the soil is very dry and of a peaty nature burn off the 
roots of the trees. The result of this is that the trees are 
blown dov/n in great confusion and form what are 
known as ''fire falls." Where a thick growth falls, it forms 




Figure 32. A FIRE FALL. Roots burned oflf and trees blown down 
in great confusion. 

an almost impassable barrier which remains in this state un- 
til decay and repeated fires extending over a long series of 
years finally destroy the trees and perhaps get the land into 
condition for a new growth. 

Causes of Forest Fires. The onlv natural causes of forest fires 



FOREST FIRES. 123 

are friction and lightning-, both of wliich occasionally start fires 
in dead trees, but as such fires are most likely to be set during 
a rain they seldom do much damage. Practically all the in- 
jurious forest fires that have devastated the forested part of 
this section have resulted indirectly either from a lack of ap- 
preciation of the damage done by them or from carelessness 
and ignorance. In the disastrous Hinckley fire of 1894 the 
damage was done by a large fire formed by the combination 
of several small fires that were allowed to smoulder in the 
swamps near Hinckley for a week or more, which when fanned 
by a dry hot v^ind attained an irresistible energy. If we had 
had a fire law that could have been properly enforced at that 
time, or if the people near Hinckley had been aware of their 
danger, that great fire, with its attendant great loss of life 
and property, need not have occurred. 

Fires often escape from settlers when they are clearing 
land and are sometimes started by them to make pasture for 
their stock. The careless use of fire by the hunters, pros- 
pectors and others who camp in the forest and leave their 
camp fires. unextinguished is another common cause of fires. 
Railroads set many fires and should be required to more 
rigidly conform to the law requiring them to use spark arrest- 
ers and to keep their right of way free from combustible 

material. 

The moral effect of a properly enforced forest fire law is 

not only very great in restraining the careless, but especially 
in educating law-abiding citizens in the idea that there is 
value in young seedlings and timber trees. 

The Prevention of Forest Fires will be most certainly accom- 
plished by educating our people to an appreciation of the 
amount of damage done by them. In some counties in this 
state it is impossible to enforce the law against setting forest 
fires owing to the belief that fires are a good thing for their 
sections in destroying tree growth and bringing the land into 
condition to be easily taken up by settlers. There is some 
truth in this claim, but since the fires destroy all increase on 
the land they sweep over, a large amount of it is thereby ren- 
dered entirely unproductive long before settlers are ready for 
it, while in the meantime it might be producing a crop of 
valuable timber. Then again, it is the greatest injustice to 



124 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

allow one person to burn the property of another, which right 
is practically claimed by those who advocate the unrestricted 
use of fire. 

With a desire in the minds of people to keep out forest 
fires, there are many precautions that could be taken that would 
lessen the chances of their starting and when started would 
aid in controlling- them. The first thing is a good fire law 
such as now stands in Minnesota, which recognizes the fact 
that the state and county should protect forest property from 
fire for the same reason that a town or city protects the prop- 
erty of its citizens from fire. This law puts one-third the 
expense of enforcing it on the state and the other two-thirds 
on the county. The chief reasons why a part of this burden 
should be borne by the state and not by the counties alone 
are that fires spread from one county to another and the 
state must be organized to extinguish such fires when they 
have once started, since it is the only competent author- 
ity that can do this. Then again, the state of Minnesota owns 
or will own, when surveys have been completed, about 
3,000,000 acres of land scattered through the forested area, 
besides possibly nearly as great an area that has been bid in 
by the state for delinquent taxes. A large part of the land 
the state owns has a valuable growth of ti'ees on it, much of 
which is liable to injury or destruction by fire at any time 
and the state can well afi'ord to provide protection for it. 

Fire-breaks in the shape of clean earth roads, plowed strips, 
etc., are effective ao'ainst ordinar;y forest fires. Very often by 
clearing up and widening the course of a brook a vo-y 
efficient fire break may be made which will supplement other 
fire breaks. It is stated on good authority that fairly satis- 
factory and very cheap fire-breaks may be made in rough 
stump land by fencing off a strip about three rods wide and 
pasturing it with sheep which will kill out all the brush in the 
course of a year or two. The sheep do this most effectually 
if the land is rather over stocked and they receive a little 
grain to make up for their lack of pasturage. Figure 33 
shows a fire-break or lane on Le Grande Dune in France. 

The Burning of Trash left on the ground at the time of log- 
ging is recommended by some of our best woodmen as a means 



FOREST FIRES. 



125 




Figure 33. Fire-break on a great sand dune in France which has 
been successfully covered with Pine. See page 124-. 



126 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

of doing- away with one of tlie sources of our worst forest 
fires. This trash can be burned early in the spring or at 
other times when the ground is wet and fire is not likely to get 
beyond control. On the other hand, it is well known that 
there are many seedlings on such land that would be seriously 
injured or destroyed by such treatment. It is also known 
that under the trash left after logging are generally found 
about the best conditions for pine seeds to start and for the 
seedlings to s'row so that some of our best authorities con- 
demn the practice. It would seem, however, that on account 
of the great liability of fires starting in such trash, prudence 
would generally advocate the burning of it while it could be 
controlled, but this should be done so as to cause as little in- 
jury as possible to new growth and especial care should 
be taken to save seeding trees. The cost of such work has 
been urged against it, but this has often been over-estimated 
and it seems evident that it is entirely practicable. 

The Methods of Fighting Surface Fires are various and their 
use depends on the conditions under which the work must be 
done. Where possible the plowing of a fire-break a rod or 
more wide is most satisfactory, but this is seldom practicable 
within our w^ooded areas. Back Firing is generally the most 
successful method of making a fire-bi'eak. When this is to 
be practiced a convenient place to fight fire should be chosen 
at some distance ahead of the main fire where the back fire 
should be started after eveiy precaution has been taken to 
prevent its getting beyond control. Where a supply of water 
can be obtained surface fires can be most easily put out by 
applj'ing it through a common sprinkling pot with a good 
rose sprinkler on it. This is especially effective where fire is 
running through grass and those who have never tried it will 
generally be surprised at the effectiveness of this method. 
Where the fire is burning several inches of leaves a small 
strip should be cleaned of them before applying the water. 
Gunny sacks or similar material w^et in water make very 
effective weapons with which to fight fire. 

Underground Fires, such as occur in bogs and other soils 
containing a large amount of organic matter, when once 
started are often very hard to subdue owing to their great 
depth, and where not looked after, sometimes burn for a 



FOREST FIRES. 127 

year or more unless we have very heavy I'ains. They often 
cause sfreat injury by burning- out all organic matter from 
the soil and leaving it in poor shape for crops, though a 
rather severe but not excessive firing of bogs may do much to 
clear the land of roots and put it in shape for a good hay 
meadow. Then, too, they often so reduce the level of the 
land by burning out the organic matter as to make it wet and 
of no value for agricultural crops. If such fires are attacked 
soon after they secure a foothold in the soil they are seldom 
very difficult to put out. Where not deep in the ground or of 
very great extent, the burning peat may be dug out and 
watered, but this is often impracticable on account of the 
heat. In this latter case a ditch should be dug around the 
fire as close to it as practicable and of sufficient depth to 
reach standing water or the subsoil. The fire should then be 
carefully watched to see that it does not get beyond the ditch. 
It is seldom that sufficient water can be put on a large bog fire 
to put it out, on account of the great amount of water that 
dry peat will absorb and the protective covering of ashes and 
peat usually found over a bog fire. 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



COlSriFER^E. Pine Family. 

Trees or shrubs with resinous juice. Leaves commonly 
needle-shaped or awl-shaped and mostly everg-reen. Flowers 
monoecious or sometimes dioecious, in catkins or cones, des- 
titute of calyx and corolla. The pollen grains have lateral 
air sacs which buoy them up in the air and they are occasion- 
ally carried hundreds of miles by the wind. Fruit either a 
woody cone with distinct scales as in the pines, spruces, 
Arborvitae and Larch or a somewhat berry-like cone with 
fleshy coherent scales as in the Red Cedar. 

Genus PINUS. 

Leaves of two kinds; the primary ones, linear or scale 
like, deciduous; the secondary forming the ordinary foliage 
evergreen, from slender buds, in clusters of 2, 3 or 5 together, 
each cluster surrounded by a sheath of thin membranous 
scales. Flowers appear in the spring, monoecious; the 
staminate in scaly catkins clustered at the base of the new 
growth; the pistillate in scaly catkins borne on the twigs of 
the preceding season becoming scaly cones at maturity. Each 
scale is in the axil of a bract and bears a pair of ovules ad- 
hering to its inner face which peel off as the scale expands at 
maturity. Fruit a woody cone maturing in the autumn of the 
second year. Cotyledons 3 to 12, linear. We have only 
three native species in this state. 

Pinus strobus. White Pine. Weymouth Pine. 

Leaves soft, in clusters of 5, about 3 to 4 inches long, 
falling at the end of the second or during the third season ; 
sheath early deciduous. Sterile catkins 5 or 6 together. 



132 



TREES OF MINNESOTA, 




Plate 1. Pin us strobus. White Pine. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, side 
view, enlarged. 4 and 5. Scales of pistillate flower, side and top views, enlarged. 
6. Autumn branch bearing young cones, one-half natural size. 7. Fruiting 
branch bearing open cone, one-half natural size. 8. Scale of cone with seeds at- 
tached, one-half natural size. 9. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural 
size. 10. Seeds, enlarged. 11. Seedling plant. 



PINES. 133 

Cones solitary, 4 to 6 inches long-, slender, cylindrical, termi- 
nal, pendulous, fallings after shedding- their seeds; scales thin 
and pointless, seeds nearly i inch long- with 8 to 10 cotyledons. 
A magnificent tree and the tallest one of the eastern states. 
In good locations in this state it sometimes attains a height 
of over 160 feet and a diameter of 4 feet. One acre was scaled 
near Carlton, Minn, which yielded over 94,000 feet board 
measure of sound timber. The White Pine is generally found 
in this section on rather clayey land. On poor land the Nor- 
way and Jack Pine generally crowd it out. 

Distribution. — Canada and the northeastern states and 
southward along the AUeghanies to Georgia, the Valley of 
the St. Lawrence and around the Great Lakes. In Minnesota 
it is common through the northern half of the state, excepting 
west of Red Lake, and south to the northern edge of Chisago 
County. It is found occasionally south of this limit as at St. 
Cloud, Taylors Falls, Cannon River, Mantorville, Rochester, 
St. Charles and at various points in Houston and Fillmore 
Counties. In the western and southwestern portions of the 
state it is not found. 

Propaqation. — By seeds as recommended for evergreens. 
The young seedlino-s will not bear as much sunlight as the Nor- 
way, Jack or the Bull Pine and will bear considerable shade. 

Propeiiies of wood. — Very soft, lig-ht, weak, compact, 
straight grained, very resinous, easily worked, of a delicate 
pinkish brown color with lighter colored sapwood. One of its 
points of considerable value is the small degree to which it 
shrinks and swells owing to change in the atmosphere. Not 
durable in contact with the soil, although the heartwood 
stands fairly well. Specific gravity, 0.3854; weight of a cubic 
foot, 24.02 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Pine is one of the fastest growing and 
perhaps the most graceful of evergreens for ornamental plant- 
ing. It grows rapidly when in retentive soil of a loose open 
texture, but is liable to kill out in wet, compact or very sandy 
soils. It should not be planted in very exposed situations, 
but should follow^ the planting of the more hardy deciduous 
trees in such places; it is liable to be killed by drying winds 
in the early spring on our western prairies. It is not as hardy 



134 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

as the Scotch Pine nor will it make as fast a growth when 
young, but is longer lived than the Scotch Pine and in 
fifteen years will make a much larger and more ornamental 
tree. Within and near its range it is very valuable for orna- 
mental purposes. 

The White Pine yields the most useful timber of the 
American forests, it being especially valuable for sash, doors, 
blinds, shingles, etc., and for a general purpose timber in 
building. From the bark is obtained the compound syrup of 
White Pine now largely used in the United States as an 
expectorant. 

Pinus flexilis. Western "White Pine. 

Leaves 5 in a sheath, somewhat rigid, sharp pointed and 
densely crowded on the branchlets, falling during fifth and 
sixth years. Cones cylindrical, tapering, 3 to 5 inches long, 
light brown; scales thick, li inches broad: seeds i to i inch 
long with 6 to 9 cotyledons. A handsome tree about 50 feet 
high, resembling the Common White Pine, but of closer, 
stiffer habit and darker foliage. 

Distribution. — Mountain ranges from Alberta to Western 
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained, compact; 
color light clear yellow turning red on exposure; sapwood 
nearly white. Specific gravity 0.4358; weight of a cubic foot 
27.16 pounds. 

Uses. — The Western White Pine is a handsome tree that is 
little known in cultivation, but promises to be of value for 
ornamental planting and is doing very vrell at the Minnesota 
Experiment Station, where it has been growing six years. 

Pinus resinosa. Norway Pine. Red Pine. 

Leaves 5 to 6 inches long, nearly cylindrical; in pairs 
from long close sheaths, falling during fourth and fifth sea- 
sons. Cone ovoid conical with rounded base, about two 
inches long, falling after shedding the seeds; scales of cone 
slightly thickened at the end without any prickly points; seeds 
i of an inch long with from 6 to 8 cotyledons. A very hand- 
some, rapid-growing, robust tree with a straight, uniform 



PINES. 



135 




Plate 2. Pinus resinosa. Nor^vay Pine. 



1. Branch bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate 
flower, natural size. 3. Pistillate flower, natural size. 4. Anther, open, en- 
larged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Branch bearing ripened cones 
and young cones. 7. Scale of cone with seeds attached, one-half natural size. 
8. Cross section of needle. 9. Seedling plant, one-half natural size. 



136 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

trunk covered with a pretty reddish gray, soft, flaky bark; 
commonly grows about 80 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter^ 
but occasionally reaches a height of 150 feet. Wrongly called 
Norway Pine, for this species is not found in Norway or any 
other part of Europe. 

Dtstrihution. — Found in northern United States and Can- 
ada, southward as far as Pennsylvania, but reaches its 
greatest development in the northern part of Michigan, Wis- 
consin and Minnesota, w^here it forms large forests even on 
sandy or dry soil often interspersed with Jack Pine when 
young. In Minnesota its range is about the same as that of 
White Pine but does not extend as far south. 

Propagation. — By seeds as recommended for evergreens. 
The seeds of this pine are very scarce and difficult to obtain 
on account of the few^ produced in the cones and the ravages- 
of the squirrels. These animals are so fond of the seeds that 
they often cut into the cones before the seeds are mature and 
take the larger part. 

Properties of wood. — Light, hard, not very strong, elastic, 
resinous and durable, harder than White Pine and more liable 
to crack in drying; yellowish white sapwood and reddish 
heart wood, conspicuously grained, not durable in contact 
with the ground. Specific gravity 0.4854, weight of a cubic 
foot 30.25 pounds. 

Uses. — As an ornamental tree and for windbreaks the 
Norway Pine will stand much more hard usage than the 
White Pine, especially on light soil; it has a robust, vigor- 
ous appearance and would undoubtedly be more commonly 
planted if young plants of it could be more cheaply obtained. 
Within and near its range it makes a very fine ornamental 
tree and is very valuable for windbreaks. The principal 
value of this timber is for framing, flooring, wainscoting, 
car sills and ship building. In many ways it is used to take 
the place of White Pine. In fact, Norway Pine, while in- 
ferior for general use is frequently mixed with White Pine in 
lumber yards. While its specific name i^esinosa would seem 
to infer the presence of a large amount of resin in this tree, 
it, in fact, contains comparatively little and is seldom used 
for the purpose of obtaining resin. 



PINES. 



137 




Plate 3. Pinus divaricata. Jack Pine. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, natural size. 
4. Anther, open, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Branch bear- 
ing ripened cones and young cones, one-half natural size. 7. Scale of cone with 
seeds attached, one-half natural size. 8. Fascicle of needles, one-half natural 
size. 9. Cross section of needle. 10. New growth showing several whorls of 
branches, one-half natural size. 11. Seedling, one-half natural size. 



138 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Pinus divaricata. ( P. banksiana. ) Jack Pine. Nor- 
thern Scrub Pine. Gray Pine. 

Leaves in twos, short, from f to li inches lon^, acute, 
rigid, thick, more or less curved and twisted, falling- the 
second or third season; inner side channeled: margins very 
minutely serrate, sheaths short; buds very resinous. Cones 
ovoid acuminate, about 2 inches long, often curved, laterally 
located on branchlets, often in pairs. They are generally 
opened by the sun, but where they are in the shade they will 
remain on the trees unopened for several years until they be- 
come deeply covered with moss and sonietimes until over- 
grown and imbedded in the wood and bark. The seeds are 
about i of an inch long with 4 to 5 cotyledons. Those from 
the old cones seem to grow as readily as fresh seeds when 
sown. A very pronounced peculiarity of this tree is the habit 
of forming several whorls of branches on the new growth. 
This is especially noticeable when the trees are young and 
growing rapidly when as many as six whorls of branches may 
be seen on a year's growth. This tree under favorable con- 
ditions will occasionally attain a height of 125 feet and a 
diameter of 2 feet. However, it is seldom over 70 feet high 
and 8 to 12 inches in diameter and generally where it occurs 
in pine forests it is only 40 or 50 feet high. 

Distribution. — It is distributed from northern New England 
and the Valley of the St. Lawrence westward along our 
northern frontier to the Rocky Mountains and north to the 
Arctic Circle; found growing in sandy land and land that has 
been recently severely burned. It covers large areas of poor 
sandy lands in Minnesota. In this state it probably has 
about the same range as Norway Pine. 

Propagatioyi. — By seeds. The cones may be obtained at 
any season of the year and kept out of doors until spring, 
when they can be opened by the application of a little heat. 
The seeds from the old cones seem to have as much vitality 
as those from young cones. In the woods the cones of Jack 
Pine often remain closed until a fire sweeping over the land 
causes them to open and allows the seeds to fall in the loose 
ashes, where they soon start into growth. On account of this 
peculiarity it is sometimes called the Fire Pine. The seed- 



PINES. 139 

lings are very hardy and grow without shade. It is one of 
the first evergreens to start on the abandoned dry pine land 
of this state. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, resinous; 
light yellowish brown in color with thick w^hitish sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.4761: weight of a cubic foot 29.67 pounds. 

Uses. — The Jack Pine is not a pretty tree and is seldom 
used in ornamental planting. It is, however, the hardiest 
native evergreen tree we have and is especially adapted to 
dry, loose soil, where it has a wondrous power of withstand- 
ing drouth. It is of rapid growth when young, which together 
with its great hardiness, has led to its being planted on some 
of the sandiest dry lands of the West. In the timbered pop- 
tion of Minnesota it often acts as a nurse tree for the Norway 
Pine which, however, soon outgrows it. The larger trees are 
generally sawed into lumber and pass as Norway Pine, but 
they seldom attain a size large enough to be profitably used 
for this purpose, and much of it is used only as fuel. 

Pinus ponderosa scopuloruni. Bull Pine. Rock 
Pine. Heavy-wooded Pine. Western Yellow Pine. 

Leaves 3 to 6 inches long, rigid, generally in threes, but 
occasionally in tw^os, falling during third and fourth seasons. 
Cones 2 to 3 inches long, grayish, with stout prickles. Tree 
SO to lUO feet high. The species Pinus ponderosa of which this 
is an important variety is the most magnificent and widely 
spread of western pines, attaining a height of 200 to 300 feet 
and a thickness of 12 to 15 feet and having much larger cones 
and larger needles than this variety. 

Distribution. — The Bull Pine is found throughout the 
Rocky Mountain region. It inhabits even the dry sand hills 
of western Nebraska and Montana and is perhaps the hardiest 
western pine. 

Propagation. — By seeds which are large, easily obtained 
and grow with the greatest certainty if given ordinary treat- 
ment. 

Properties of wood. — The wood var'es greatly in quality 
and value. It is heavy, hard, strong, brittle and compact, 
neither coarse grained nor durable; color, light red with very 



140 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 4. Pinvs ponderosa scopulorum. Bull Pine. 
1. End of branch bearing staminate flower, enlarged. 2. End of branch- 
bearing pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Anther, open. 4. Scale of pistillate 
flower attached to bract, front view, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower at- 
tached to bract, rear view, enlarged. 6. Cone, one-half of natural size. 7. Scale 
of cone, rear view, one-half natural size. 8. Seed attached to wing. 9. Branch 
showing young growth, one-half natural size. 10. Fascicle of three needles, one- 
half natural size. 11. Fascicle of two needles, one-half natural size. 12. Cross 
section of needle from three-leaf fascicle. 13. Seedling, one-half natural size. 



PINES. 141 

thick light colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4619: weight 
of a cubic foot 28.78 pounds. 

Uses. — The Bull Pine has the power of withstanding great 
extremes of drouth and temperature and promises to be of 
great value for planting on our western plains. It is of rapid 
growth and while it has a somewhat coarse appearance its 
sturdy form is far from being unsightly. It is perhaps rather 
more difficult to transplant than the Scotch Pine, probably on 
account of its deep tap root when young. The wood is largely 
manufactured into lumber and used for railway ties, fuel, etc. 

Pinus sylvestris. Scotch Pine. Scotch Fir. Deal 
Wood. 

Leaves 2 in a sheath, li to 2 inches long and of a 
glaucous hue, falling during third season; sheaths small, 
persistent, nearly black. Cones about two inches long, taper- 
ing towards the apex, solitary or in clusters of two or three; 
scales of cones tipped with a deciduous point. Trees rather 
inclined to grow crooked and to not keep a straight shaft as 
in the case of the Norway and Austrian Pines. In this region 
where it is cultivated, it seldom grows over ten inches in 
diameter and forms round topped trees spreading 25 to 30 
feet. There are several cultivated varieties the most'of which 
are of little value. 

Distribution. — It is the common timber pine of northern 
Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds if properly man- 
aged, but requires shade when very small. Most of the seeds 
of this pine that are commonly sold are gathered in Europe 
from a dwarf scrubby form that is found on dry poor land. 
There are probably very few seeds sold from the large timber 
trees, as they are most cheaply gathered from the dwarf form. 
This may be a reason why the tree is generally so dwarf with 
us, although it varies much in size when grown in different 
soils. 

Properties of wood. — Yellowish white, soft, light, close 
Sprained and easily worked. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.52. 

Uses. — The Scotch Pine is one of the hardiest of ever- 
greens, of very rapid close growth when young, but often 
rather open in habit when old. It generally reaches its 



142 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 5. Pinus sylvestris. Scotch Pine. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. Branch bearing 
pistillate flowers after pollination, one-half natural size. 4. Unopened pistillate 
flower, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, rear view, enlarged. 6. Scale of 
pistillate flower, front view, enlarged. 7. Anther, enlarged. 8. Branch bearing 
ripe cone and young cone, one-half natural size. 9. An open cone, one-half 
natural size. 10. Scale of cone, one-half natural size. 11. Seeds with wings at- 
tached. 12. Seed, natural size. 13. Seedling, one-half natural size. 



PINES. 143 

maturity when about 20 years old and seldom lasts much 
longer when on dry soil. It has been planted more largely 
than any other evergreen on our prairies and perhaps is as 
good as any for pioneer plantings. 

The wood of this tree is valuable for interior finishing and 
is largely used in Europe, where it is the common timber 
pine. The celebrated pine of Norway and the Baltic countries 
is of this species. What has been termed the best form of 
this and known as Riga Pine has been partially tried in this 
country but thus far its superiority has not been demonstrated. 

"This pine yields a considerable portion of the common 
European turpentine. In Germany a fibrous substance is 
prepared from the leaves of this and other species of Pinus 
and Abies, called fir-wool, and a volatile oil is distilled from 
them called fir-wool oil which is considerably used as a 
remedy for rheumatism, chronic catarrh, chronic skin dis- 
eases, etc., in fact, generally for the same purposes as the oil 
of turpentine. The leaves are made into wadding and cloth- 
ing ( designated as fir-wool from their origin ) which are 
supposed to have some merit in the treatment of rheumatic 
affections." 

Pinus laricio austriaca. Austrian Pine. Black Pine. 

Leaves 2 in a sheath, dark green, slender but rigid, 4 to 
6 inches long, falling during fourth and fifth seasons. Cones 
2i to 3 inches long, conical, not beaked. Tree much more 
regular in outline than the Scotch Pine: the branches coming 
out in a very regular candelabra-like fashion. There are a 
few cultivated varieties. 

Distnbution, — Native of southern and central Europe. 

Propagation. — By seeds, seedlings require shading when 
young. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, durable, very rich in tur- 
pentine. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.57. 

Uses. — The Austrian Pine in very desirable for planting 
in this section, rather longer lived and perhaps hardier than 
the Scotch Pine and of a much darker color resembling most 
closely the Norway Pine. 



144 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 6. Pinus laricio austriaca. Austrian Pine. 



1. Branch-bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch-bear- 
ing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. End of branch- 
bearing bud and young cone, one-half natural size. 4. Pistillate flower, natural 
size. 5. Anther, enlarged. 6 and 7. Scales of pistillate flower, front and rear 
views, enlarged. 8. Open cone, one-half natural size. 9. Scale of cone, one- 
half natural size. 10. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural size. 11. 
Seed, natural size. 12. Seedling, one-half natural size. 13. Cross section of 
needle. 



PINES. 



145 



Pinus montana pumila. {P. miighus.) Dwarf Pine. 
Dwarf Mountain Pine. 

Leaves dark green, crowded, stiff, twisted, about 2 inches 
long, falling during fifth, sixth and seventh years. Cones, 
usually in pairs, nearly 2 inches long, tapering, with slight 
points to the scales. A densely branched shrub or possibly 
a small tree 2 to 10 feet high. 







Fig. 34. Pinus montana pumiJa. Dwarf Pine. 

Distribution. — Mountains of central Europe. 

Propagation.— ^Sisilj grown from seeds. 

Uses. — The Dwarf Pine is one of the hardiest of Pines. It 
is of pretty, close shrubby form and takes kindly to pruning- 
which often greatly improves it. The plants from seed vary 
quite a little in habit, some being dwarf and spreading while 
others are quite erect and tree-like. It is valuable for single 
specimens in lawn planting, for the edges of evergreen groups 
and for low hedges. 



Genus LARIX. 

A genus of large, deciduous, cone-bearing trees. Leaves 
needle shaped, soft, deciduous, very many in clusters which 
are developed in early spring- from lateral, scaly, globular 
buds, which are scattered along the shoots of the season. 

Propagation. — The seeds germinate readily in moist sandy 
soil and the seedlings are easily raised in the manner de- 
.scribed for evergreens. They should be transplanted very 
early in the spring and if this is done at the right time the 



146 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

seedlintrs will start readily, but if moved after the plants have 
started they are very likely to fail. 

Larix laricina. (L. amencana, ) Tamarack. Ameri- 
can Larch. Hackmatack. 

Leaves i to f of an inch long", slender and thread-like, 
light bluish green, deciduous. Cones i to 1 inch long, ovoid. 
A slender, graceful tree 30 to 100 feet high with close or at 
length slightly scaly bark. 

Distribution. — Northeastern United States, north of Penn- 
sylvania, nearly or quite to the Arctic regions and west 
nearly to central Minnesota; rare farther south than Ramsey 
and Hennepin counties in Minnesota. It covers vast areas pi 
swamp land in the northern part of this state with a short 
stunted growth. It fails to reach large size in very wet land, 
while on land that is not excessively wet it grows 100 feet 
high and 16 inches through at the stump. In one instance a 
stunted Tamarack growing on excessively wet land had been 
48 years in attaining a diameter of 1 1-10 inches, while on 
land well adapted to it a tree had grown to the height of 44i 
feet with a diameter of 11 inches in 38 years. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse 
grained, compact, durable in contact with the soil; color light 
brown; sapwood nearly white. Specific gravity 0.6236: weight 
of a cubic foot 38.86 pounds. 

Uses. — The Tamarack may occasionally be used for 
variety in lawn planting on moist soil and is well adapted to 
planting along lake shores and around sloughs, but on dry 
soil it is of little value and we have many far more valuable 
trees for moist soils. The lumber is largely used in ship 
building, for fence posts, telegraph poles, railway ties, etc. 
The inner bark of European Larch is used in medicine and it 
is probable that the bark of our American species has similar 
medicinal properties. Two varieties varying in color of 
heartwood, the red and the white Tamarack, are commonly 
distinguished. The difference is probably one of age only; 
the red hearted trees having the more heartwood make the 
more durable lumber. This tree grows fast and readily 
renews itself from seed; for these reasons good Tamarack 



LARCH. 



147 




Plate 7. Larix europea. European Larch. 

1. Branch-bearing staminate and pistillate flowers and a mature cone- one- 
half natural size. 2. Anther, enlarged 3. Scale of pistillate flower enlaW^^ 
4. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural size. o. Seed, "^tur^y ^,^/^-^il- 
Scale of cone, one-half natural size. 7. Branches showing arraiigement of leaves 
on new and old growth. S. Branch showing tip of newgrowthmsprmg. ^^. A 
leaf from fascicle on old growth. 10. A leaf from new growth. 11. ^^ inter 
branch showing persistent cone. 12. Seedling. 



148 TREES OE MINNESOTA. 

swamps properly managed should prove profitable in- 
vestments. 

Larix europea. European Larch. . 

Leaves longer than those of the Tamarack and of a 
brighter green color. Cones longer than those of the Tama- 
rack. A large and important timber tree. 

Distribution. — Native of northern and central Europe on 
moist mountain sides. 

Properties of wood. — Hard, strong, tough, very durable in 
contact with the soil. Specific gravity 0.62. 

Uses. — The European Larch has been largely planted in 
the eastern states in small timber plantations, for windbreaks 
and ornament. It is superior to oar native Larch for these 
purposes, but has not succeeded well on our western prairies, 
probably on account of the dry climate. On moist soil in 
somewhat sheltered locations it often does well and becomes a 
graceful pretty tree. Very large and successful plantations 
of this tree have been made in Scotland and other European 
countries. The lumber is used for posts, telegraph poles, 
piles, beams and joists and in ship building. One tree grown 
at Owatontia, Minnesota, attained a height of about 50 feet 
and a diameter of 15 inches in 30 vears, but so rapid a growth 
is uncommon here. 

Genus PICEA. 

Leaves evergreen, scattered, not grouped in sheaths, 
jointed on a persistent base, needle shaped, 4-angled, short, 
pointing every way and all of one kind. Flowers appear, 
in spring, monoecious; the staminate catkins in the axils of 
the leaves of the preceding year: the pistillate catkins termi- 
nal ovoid or oblong. Fruit a cone maturing the first year, 
pendulous with thin tough scales that open when ripe and dry, 
to liberate the two, winged seeds, found at the base of each 
scale. Trees tall and pyramidal or conical in form. 

Picea canadensis. (P. alba.) White Spruce. 

Leaves slender, i to 1 inch long, varying in color from 
light glaucous to dark gi'een, falling during fourth and fifth 
seasons. Cones oblong, 1 to 2 inches in length, deciduous in 



SPRUCE. 



149 




Plate 8. Picea canadensis. White Spurce. 
1. Branch bearing staminate flower, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bearing^ 
pistillate flower, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, side view, enlarged. 4. Pol- 
len grain showing air sacs, enlarged. 5. Branch bearing ripened cones, one-half 
natural size. 6. Scale of cone with seeds attached, natural size. 7. Scale of 
cone, rear view, natural size. 8. Cross section of needle, enlarged. 9. General 
view of tree. 



150 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

autumn or winter of first year, scales thin with entire margin s, 
not rigid, seeds small with thin wings. A graceful tree of 
pyramidal habit and horizontal branches, sometimes attain- 
ing a height of over 100 feet with a diameter of 2 feet. There 
are several varieties of value for ornamental planting. 

Distribution. — In the United States it is found in northern 
Maine and westward in certain localities to Montana. It is 
also found in Newfoundland and Labrador, westward to the 
Rocky Mountains and north to Alaska. It reaches its best 
development growing in moist soil. It is found more or less 
throughout north-eastern Minnesota, but is especially abun- 
dant near the northern boundary. 

Propagation. — The species is grown from seeds and the 
varieties by grafting. The seeds of the White Spruce are 
often infested by a weevil, which fact, together with their 
small size and the difficulty in gathering them, makes them 
high in price and often difficult to obtain. On account of the 
ease with which Norway Spruce seeds are obtained they are 
preferably sold by nurserymen. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, compact, straight grained, 
of only moderate strength, nearly odorless; color light yellow; 
sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity 0.4051; 
weight of a cubic foot 25.25 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Spruce is one of the best evergreens for 
planting in this section, generally rather slow in growth but 
forming pretty conical trees. The wood is largely used for 
general construction, spars, flooring, sounding boards for 
musical instruments, paper pulp, etc. It is not distinguished 
from Black Spruce in commerce. Spruce chewing gum is in 
part the product of this tree. 

Picea mariana. ( P. nigra. ) Black Spruce. Double 
Spruce. 

Leaves deep green, short, about i inch in length, scat- 
tered thickly over the branches, falling daring the fourth and 
fifth seasons. Cones ovoid, oblong, 1 to If inches long, per- 
sistent; scales very thin, rigid, with an uneven margin; seeds 
small with rigid wings. In Maine and elsewhere a large tree 
forming valuable forests. In this section occasionally a large 
tree but generally small, stunted and seldom cut for timber. 



SPRUCE. 



151 









Plate 9. ricea mariana. Black Spruce. 
1. Branch-bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, enlarged. 4. Scale of 
pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Branch bearing ripened cones, one-half natural 
size. 6. Seeds, enlarged. 7. Scale, front view, natural size. 8. Scale, rear 
view, natural size. 9. General view of tree as found in the muskegs of northern 
Minnesota. 



152 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Distribution. — Northern United States, Canada and north- 
ward, forming large forests in some sections. In Minnesota 
it is found in the white pine belt, though most common in the 
extreme northern portions. Generally found in swamps 
known as Muskegs on which the trees with their roots half 
submerged make a very slow growth. One specimen, the rings 
of which showed it to be 73 years old, was only li inches in 
diameter, j^ 

Pr&phgation. — By seeds. When plants are desired they 
may be easily gathered from the woods in this state. 

Properties of it^ood.— Light, soft, strong, compact and 
satiny; color reddish with nearly white sapwood. Specific 
gravity 0.458; weight of a cable foot 28.57 pounds. 

Z^ses, — The Black Spruce is a poor ornamental tree as it 
soon loses its lower branches, which with its dead persistent 
cones and dark colored bark makes it appear unsightly. It 
is also a short lived tree on dry land in this section. Most 
of the Christmas trees in our market of recent years have 
been of this kind although the Balsam Fir is also used. The 
wood is used here to some extent and elsewhere in large 
quantities for paper pulp, for which purpose it is highly 
esteemed. In the eastern range of this tree its wood is largely 
used for flooring, masts, spars, general house and shipbuild- 
ing, sounding boards for instruments and for any other pur- 
pose where a light stiff w^ood is needed. The gum which this 
tree exudes is valued as chewing gum and the gathering of it 
is quite an industry in some sections. The essence of spruce 
is made by boiling the young branches in water and evapor- 
ating the decoction. It is used in the manufacture of spruce 
beer which is a pleasant and wholesome beverage, and it is 
sometimes useful on long sea voyages as a preventive of 
scurvy. 

Picea pungens. Colorado Blue Spruce. Silver Spruce. 
Rocky Mountain White Spruce. 

Leaves about one inch long, rather broad, rigid, stout, 
pointed, usually incurved, falling during sixth and seventh 
years; branchlets smooth and shining. Cones light brown in 
color, very prickly, 3 to 5 inches long, cylindrical, with more 
or less elongated thin truncate wavy scales; seeds small but 



SPRUCE. 153 

larger than those of P. en^elmanni. A large tree of strictly 
conical growth and spreading branches. The seedlings vary 
greatly in color from a bright glaucous blue to dark green. 
The form having light colored foliage has become known as 
Piceapungens glauca. 

Distrihiition. — Valley of the Wind River south through the 
mountain ranges of Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. 

Fropagation. — The species by seeds and the varieties by 
grafting on the same or other species. 

Properties of wood. — Soft, weak, light, close grained, satiny; 
color very light brown or often nearly white; sapwood hardly 
distinguishable. Specific gravity 0.374; weight of a cubic 
foot 23.3 pounds. 

Uses. — The Coloi*ado Blue Spruce is a handsome orna- 
mental tree that is now very popular with tree planters in this 
section and elsewhere in the northern states. It is very orna- 
mental when young, but its later development is often not so 
pretty and if not growing rapidly when older it has a rather 
ragged appearance; of slower growth than the White or Nor- 
way Spruce, very hardy and well worthy of trial in a small 
way. The wood is used within its range for fuel and timber, 
although it is no where very abundant. A hedge of this tree 
may be grown so close that even a dog cannot get through as 
the sharp pointed leaves are exceedingly pungent, whence its 
name. 

Picea engelmanni. Engelman Spruce. Rocky 
Mountain White Spruce. 

Leaves f to 1 inch long, pointed but not as prickly as P. 
pungens; branchlets pubescent. Cones solitary, lito 2 inches 
long; scales rhombic, the upper ends appearing as though 
broken off; seeds smaller than those of P. pungens. In 
form and color of foliage this species resembles P. pungens 
but makes a larger tree often growing 100 feet in height. 
In some nurseries it is customary to tell the Colorado Blue 
Spruce from the Engelmann Spruce by grasping the top of 
the young tree with the hand when if it pricks only a litcle. 
the tree is set down as Engelmann Spruce, while if the 
pricking is unendurable it is called Colorado Blue Spruce. 
This method of determining the species generally gives 



154 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

correct results, but a certain way is to examine the bark 
of the new growth between the needles, which if slig-htly 
downy indicates the Engelraann Spruce, and if smooth and 
shining", the Colorado Blue Spruce. 

Distribution. — Northern New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, 
northward to British Columbia, in the mountains at high 
elevations. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Very li^ht, soft, weak, very close 
straig-ht grained, compact, satiny; color pale yellow, tinged 
with red: sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity 
0.3449; weight of a cubic foot 21.49 pounds. 

Uses — The Engelmann Spruce is a valuable ornamental 
and timber tree, resembling the Blue Spruce, but it has been 
tried to only a limited extent. It is the most valuable timber 
tree of the central Rocky Mountain region, where it forms 
extensive forests. In Colorado it is manufactured into lum- 
ber and is largely used for fuel, charcoal, etc. The bark is 
rich in tannin and in Utah is sometimes used for tanning 
leather. 

Picea excelsa. Norway Spruce. 

Leaves long, deep green in color, falling during the fifth 
season. Cones cylindrical, large, 5 to 7 inches long, light 
colored, often very conspicuous in the tops of the trees. A 
fine large conical tree with stout branches and generally 
pendulous branchlets. There are numerous horticultural 
varieties, some of the dwarf forms growing only 3 to 5 feet 
^igh. 

Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia. 

Propagation . — Easily grown from seeds which are used in 
large quantities. The varieties are propagated by grafting- 
on the species. 

Properties of wood. — Light, strong and fine grained. Specific 
gravity, air dried, 0.47. 

Uses. — The Norway Spruce has been largely planted in 

the more eastern states and is a general favorite as it grows 

more rapidly than any of our native spruces and is very 

graceful and stately in form. There are many plantings of 

this tree in Minnesota and they are holding on well yet the 



SPRUCE, 



155 




Plate 10. ricea excelsa. Norway Spruce. 
1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flower, one-half natural size. 3. Winter branch showing buds, one- 
half natural size. 4. Scaleof pistillate flower, front view, enlarged, o. fecale ot pis- 
tillate flower, rear view, enlarged. 6. Scale of pistillate flower, side view, enlarged. 
7. Bract of pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Anther, side view, enlarged. 9- * ruit- 
ing branch, one-half natural size. 10. Scale of cone with seeds attached, one-halt 
natural size. 11. Seeds with wings attached. 12. Seed, natural size. 13. Seed- 
ling, one-half natural size. 14. General view of tree showing drooping branches 
and pyramidal form. 



156 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

White Spruce is a safer tree for gfeneral planting. Since it 
is more difficult to obtain the seed of the White Spruce it is 
probable that the Norway Spruce will continue to be planted. 
The wood of Norway Spruce is much used in Europe and is 
larg-ely g-rown there for timber. The young branches are used 
in making" the essence of spruce as described under Black 
Spruce. The bark is used to a considerable extent in Europe 
for tanning- purposes. 

Genus TSUGA. 
A genus of but a single species in our section. 

Tsuga canadensis. Hemlock. 

Leaves linear, flat, i inch long, obtuse, whitened beneath, 
short petioled and diverging from the sides of the branchlet 
so as to make it appear flattened, falling during second and 
third years. Cones small, scarcely longer than the leaves, 
pendent from the tips of the branches of the preceding year, 
persistent, with inconspicuous bracts: seeds quite small with 
thin wings, maturing the first year. A large graceful tree. 
There are several horticultural varieties in cultivation. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south 
as far as Delaware and along the mountains to Alabama. 
Scarcely found in Minnesota though common near its eastern 
borders in Wisconsin. A few specimens are found near Clo- 
quet, and perhaps occasionally elsewhere near the eastern 
boundary. 

Propagation. — The species by seeds and the varieties by 
grafting on the species. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, brittle, coarse srrained and 
not very easily worked; color very light red or brown with 
still lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4239; weight 
of a cubic foot 26.42 pounds. 

Uses. — The Hemlock is unsafe for general planting in this 
section, as it is very liable to injury from cold winds and 
drouth, but in extreme eastern Minnesota on moist soil and 
in protected locations it has proved desirable for ornamental 
planting. The wood of the Hemlock is used for framing and 
general construction purposes where fine finish is not needed. 
It is loose and warps badly when exposed. The bark is used 



DOUGLAS FIR. 157 

in immense quantities for tanning leather and is largely obtained 
for this purpose in Wisconsin. 

Genus PSEUDOTSUGA. 

A genus of a single species midway between the Firs and 
Hemlock. Leaves somewhat 2-ranked by a twist at the base. 
Cones upright, maturinsr the first season. 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia. (P.clouglasii.) Douglas Spruce. 
Red Fir. Douglas Fir. 

Leaves linear, distinctly petioled, mostly blunt or rounded, 
nearly an inch long on old trees but a little longer on young 
thrifty trees, falling during fifth season: in color generally a 
rich dark green, but some specimens occur on which the 
foliage is a light glaucous blue. Cones 2 to 4 inches long, 
cylindrical; bracts toothed, protruding above the scales and 
giving a fringed appearance to the cones; seeds triangular, 
reddish on the upper side, flat, and white on the lower side. 
A gigantic tree sometimes 200 to 300 feet in height. When 
young it is seldom very symmetrical in form and is likely to 
produce heavy limbs unless severely crowded. 

Distribution. — Throughout the Rocky Mountains and the 

mountains of California, reaching its greatest height in 

Oregon. 

Propagation, — One of the easiest conifers to grow from 

seeds, which may be readily obtained from the trees in the 

Rocky Mountain region. 

Properties of wood. — Hard, strong, durable, varying great- 
ly with age and conditions of density, quality and amount of 
sapwood; difficult to work; color varying from light red to 
yellow; sapwood nearly w^hite. Specific gravity 0.5157; weight 
of a cubic foot 32.23 pounds. 

Uses. — The Douglas Spruce is a fine ornamental tree of 
graceful proportions, good color, rapid growth and wonderful 
hardiness. Probably one of the most valuable evergreens for 
general planting in Minnesota and apparently destined to 
partly supersede the White and Norway Spruce for this pur- 
pose. It is also the most promising foreign tree for sowing 
on the cut-over timber lands of this section and should be 
largely experimented with for this purpose. Tw^o varieties 



158 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 11. Pseudotsug-a taxifolia. Douglas Spruce. 

1. Branch bearing staminaje flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. 
Anther, open, side view, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. 
Scale of cone, front view, one-half natural size. 7. Scale of cone, rear view, 
showing bract, one-half natural size. 8. Scale of cone, side view, showing bract, 
one-half natural size. 9. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural size. 10. 
Needle, natural size. 11. Cross section of needle. 



BALSAM FIRS. 159 

are distinguished by lumbermen, the Red and the Yellow Fir, 
the former is coarse grained and dark colored and considered 
less valuable than the latter. Both kinds are largely manu- 
factured into lumber and used for all kinds of construction, 
railway ties, piles, etc. 

Genus ABIES. 
Trees of pyramidal habit. Leaves sessile, flat, with the 
midrib prominent on the lower surface, appearing 2-ranked 
by a twist near the base giving the horizontal branches a flat 
appearance. Cones erect on the upper side of the branches, 
maturing the first year. 

Abies balsamea. Balsam Fir. 

Leaves narrow, linear, i to f of an inch long, dark green 
above, whitened on the under side, falling during the fifth sea- 
son. Cones cylindrical, 2 to 4 inches long, and one inch thick, 
violet colored; bracts shorter than the scales and tipped with 
a slender point. The branches grow out usually in whorls of 
about five each with great regularity and diminishing in length 
from below upwards forming a symmetrical pyramidal top. 
This is a very striking habit and gives to the Balsam Fir 
swamps a characteristic aspect. Tree slender, sometimes 80 

feet high. 

Distribution. — Northeastern United States and Canada, 

southward to Virginia, westward beyond the Mississippi and 

far north, growing in swamps and cold damp woods. In 

Minnesota almost confined to the northeastern half of the 

state extending south to Chisago and Isanti counties. 

i' Propagation. — By seeds, horticultural varieties by grafting. 

, Properties of wood. — Very soft, light, weak, not durable, 
with distinct coarse grain, color whitish with a slightly red- 
dish tint toward the heart. Specific gravity 0.3819, weight of 
a cubic foot 23.8 pounds. 

Uses. — The Balsam Fir is very striking and very pretty 
when young. On moist, retentive soil it holds on well in this 
section but is poorly adapted for general planting and should 
be used sparingly if at all. The wood is of very little value, 
and is seldom sawed into lumber. It furnishes Canada Bal- 
sam, which is an aromatic oil-like resin of considerable com- 



160 



TREES OF MLNNESOTA, 




Plate 12. Abies balsamea. Balsam Fir. 
L Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, open, rear view, enlarged. 
4. Branch bearing mature cone, one-half natural size. 5. Branch bearing axes 
of cones after scales have fallen, one-half natural size. 6. Seeds with wings at- 
tached, natural size. T. Seed, enlarged. 8. Scale of cone, upper view, natural 
size. 9. Scale of cone, lower view, natural size. 



BALSAM FIRS. 161 

mercial importance. It is obtained by puncturing the vescicles 
(blisters) formed under the bark of the stem and branches 
which contain from a few drops to a half teasponful each. 
This is used in the arts and medicinally in chronic bronchial 
and catarrhal affections. The smaller branches exhale a 
delightful odor and are preferred by campers in the woods 
for beds. 

Abies concolor. White Fir. Silver Fir. 

Leaves mostly obtuse, pale green, 1 to 2i inches long, 
with two resin ducts close to the epidermis of the lower sur- 
face. Cones oblong, cylindrical, 3 to 5 inches long, 1 to If 
inches in diameter, pale green or sometimes dull purple. A 

large tree. 

Distribution, — From Arizona to Southern Colorado, Utah 

and California. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Very light, soft, coarse grained, com- 
pact, not strong: color very light brown or nearly white with 
somewhat darker sapwood. Specific gravity 0.3638; weight of 
a cubic foot 22.67 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Fir is justly gaining in popularity as 
an ornamental evergreen. When young it often spreads out 
on the ground and seems slow to make an upward growth, but 
after a few years it takes on a good broad conical form. Its 
rather long leaves of a pale green color, and its light bark 
and good form give it a very pretty appearance. It has stood 
for more than ten years on the grounds of the Minnesota 
Experiment Station without serious injury and has 
made pretty specimens about six feet high and nearly as 
broad. It undoubtedly prefers a moist soil, though it has 
done very well on good retentive upland. The wood is of 
very little value, but is used within its range for cheap pack- 
ing cases, etc. 

Genus THUJA. 

Flowers mostly monoecious, on different branches in small 
terminal catkins, opening in May: anther cells 2 to 4. Scales 
of the pistillate flowers 8 to 12. Ovules 2 to 4. Fruit an erect, 
dry, loose cone from one-third to one-half of an inch long, 

6 



162 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

maturing in the autumn of the first season but remaining on 
the branch until the appearance of the new growth the follow- 
ing spring. Seeds oval, about i of an inch wide and winged 
all round. Leaves evergreen, small, awl or scale shaped, 
closely imbricated and appressed so as to make a flat two- 
edged branchlet: on the leading shoots the leaves are often i 
of an inch long. A small genus of evergreen trees and 
shrubs. Only one species, the Arborvitse, comes within our 
range. 

Thuja occidentalis. Arborvitae. White Cedar. 

A tree 50 or 60 feet high, seldom two feet in diameter, but 
occasionally much larger than this. There are many varie- 
ties, the most of which are characterized by some peculiar 
habit of the branches, or by peculiar coloring of the leaves. 

Distribution. — From the Valley of the St. Lawrence to 
Northern Pennsylvania, and from the Atlantic to Central 
Minnesota. A very common tree in cold swamps and along 
river banks and lake shores where the soil is moist. In Min- 
nesota very common in the northeastern portion, west to 
Rosseau County and south to the south shore of Mille Lacs 
and the mouth of Snake River. It also occurs occasionally 
as far south as the southeastern portion of Winona County. 
In some sections, as along the Mississippi River in the 
northern part of Aitkin County, it covers large areas with an 
almost impenetrable growth, which are known as cedar 
swamps. Not found in the western or southwestern parts of 
this state. 

Propagation. — The seeds of the Arborvitae grow readily, 
but the seedlings must be protected from the full sunlight for 
the first year. The many varieties are propagated from cut- 
tings in a cool greenhouse or frame, and root very slowly. 

Properties of wood. — Very light, soft, close and often 
spirally grained, very durable in contact with the soil, light 
yellowish brown in color, turning darker on exposure; sap- 
wood thin and nearly white. Specific gravity 0.3164: weight 
of a cubic foot 19.72 pounds. 

Uses. — The Arborvitae is a popular plant for evergreen 
hedges, as it forms a close compact top when pruned, and is 



ARBORVIT^. 



163 











Plate 13. Thvja occidentalis. Arborsritae. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Stamioate flower, enlarged. 
3. Stamens, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate 
flower, enlarged. 0. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7, Cone, 
with seed attached. 9. Longitudinal section of seed. 10. Embryo. 11. 
reduced. 



8. Scale 
Seedling 



164 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

of a bright green color. It stands well in this section when 
growing on good retentive land, but suffers from a deficiency 
of moisture in the soil and occasionally from severe winds in 
winter, and on this account does best in somewhat sheltered 
locations The wood is largely used for telegraph poles, 
fence posts, shingles, paving blocks and for the siding of 
light weight boats, etc. The thick layers of the sapwood 
which are easily separated are manufactured by the Canadian 
Indians into baskets and are used to strengthen birch bark 
canoes. The fresh branches often serve the purpose of 
brooms. A decoction or tincture of the young branches of 
this tree is used for intermittent fevers, coughs, scurvy, rheu- 
matism, etc., and externally to remove warts. It is also used 
in homeopathic practice. 

Varieties. — 

Thuja occidentalis wareana. (T. sibirica.) Siberian 
Arborvitae. 

This is of a dark rich green color and compact habit. It 
is one of the best kinds for favorable locations, but not so 
hardy as the species or variety next described. 

Thuja occidentalis fastigiata. (T. o. pyramidalis. ) 
Pyramidal Arborvitae. 

Branches and leaves very distinct, fine and handsome. 
Form upright, regular, pyramidal or almost columnar. Val- 
uable for variety, probably as hardy as the species and 
hardier than most of the varieties. 

Thuja occidentalis aurea. Douglas Golden Arbor- 
vitae. 

In habit like the species but with a bright yellow color to 
the leaves; conspic^ious and pretty; rather more tender than 
the species and occasionally sunscalds severely. 

Genus JUNIPERUS. 

A large genus of evergreen trees and shrubs. Flowers 
naked, dioecious, axillary or terminal. Fruit a fleshy cone, in 
some species resembling a berry or drupe more than a true cone. 



RED CEDAR. 



165 




Plate 14. Juniperus virginiana. Red Cedar. 

1 Flowering braDch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate 
flower, enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Flowering branch of pistillate tree, 
one-half natural size. 5. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. A seed, enlarged. .. 
Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 
9. Transverse sections of fruit, enlarged. 10. Longitudinal section of seed, en- 
larged. 11. Seedling, one-half natural size. 



166 TREES OF MINNEvSOTA. 

Juniperus virginiana. Red Cedar.* Red Juniper. 
Savin. 

Leaves small, evergreen, opposite, scale-like and awl 
shaped, the former sort minute, the latter about I inch long' 
and spreading. Flowers dioecious, or very rarely monoe- 
cious; the small solitary catkins upon lateral twigs appearing 
in this section in May. Fruit a small dark colored fleshy 
berry-like cone with a light blueish bloom. Fruit, leaves, and 
wood are aromatic and resinous. 

Distribution. — It is the most widely distributed conifer of 
North America. It ranges from the Atlantic to the Rocky 
Mountains and from northern Minnesota to Florida. la 
western Louisiana and Texas it makes a tree sometimes 80 
feet high and 3 of more feet in diameter, buc it is usually very 
much smaller. In this section it is nowhere abundant, rarely 
thirty feet high and generally short and bushy. In the nortli 
of its range it grows on dry land, while in the south it is 
often found in swamps. 

Propagation. — By seeds. For planting the berries should 
be gathered in Autumn, then bruised and mixed with an equal 
or greater bulk of wet wood ashes or strong lye. In three weeks 
the ashes or lye will have cut the resinous gum so that the seeds 
can be washed clean. They should then be stratified over 
winter and be sown in the spring as recommended for coni- 
ferous seeds in general. The bed should be covered with 
mulch for the first season as the seeds do not usually start 
until the second year. There are a number of varieties which 
may be propagated by cuttings of the young wood or by layers* 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained, but brittle 
and not strong, dull red, with thin nearly white sapwood, very 
fragrant, easily worked and extremely durable in contact 
with the soil. Specific gravity 0.4926, weight of a cubic foot 
30.7 pounds. 

Uses. — T'he Red Cedar is a valuable ornamental tree for 
this section, of rather slow growth except when young, but 
very hardy and durable. It makes an excellent low wind- 
break or hedge and bears close pruning without injury. The 
leaves generally turn brown by the latter part of winter. The 

*Not the Red Cedar (Thuja plicata) of the Pacific Coast. 



COMMON JUNIPER. 167 

wood is used where srreat durability in contact with the soil is 
required, for interior finishing, cabinet making- and for lining- 
chests and closets in which woolens are preserved against the 
attacks of moths. It is almost the only wood used in the 
manufacture of lead pencils and is the most hig-hly esteemed 
of any wood for the manufacture of pails, tubs, etc. A de- 
coction of the fruit and leaves is occasionally used medicinally 
and an infusion of the berries as a diuretic and in homeopathic 
remedies. Oil of Red Cedar is distilled from the leaves and 
wood and is used principally in perfumery. 

Juniperus cominuiiis. Cominon Juniper. Dwarf or 

Trailing- Juniper. 

Leaves in whorls of 3, pointed at the base, linear, lanceo- 
late, pointed, dark green on the lower side, channelled and 
glaucous white on the upper side, one-third to one half inch 
long, spreading at nearly right angles to the branches, have 
a strong unpleasant slightly astringent taste, during winter 
turn to a rich bronze color on the lower surface and remain on 
tree for five or six years. Flowers open late in spring. Fruit 
during the first year does not enlarge, but resembles the 
flower bud and does not ripen until the autumn of the third 
season when it becomes fleshy and berry-like. Sometimes a 
low crooked tree but in our range and commonly elsewhere in 
the United States a low spreading shrub often forming dense 
mats three- or four feet high. In sourthern Illinois it fre- 



^mM 



^■-^ 



Fig. 35. Common Juniper. 

quently attains a height of 25 feet and forms trunks 8 to 10 
inches in diameter. The foliage of the tree form is smaller 
than that of the dwarf. 

Distribution. — The common Juniper is the most widely dis- 
tributed tree of the northern hemisphere. In North America 
it ranges from Labrador and Greenland to Pennsylvania on 



168 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

the east, across the continent to Alaska and northern Cali- 
fornia and along the Rocky Mountains to Northern Nebraska, 
western Texas and Arizona. In the old world it is widely 
spread over northern and central Europe and Asia. 

In Minnesota often found along the bluffs of rivers. 

Propagation. — By seeds as for Red Cedar. 

Properties of wood. — Hard, close-srrained, light brown with 
whitish sapwood, susceptible of a line polish, very durable in 
contact with the soil. 

Uses. — The great hardiness and pretty dwarf habit of the 
Common Juniper make it desirable in some situations for 
ornamental planting. It readily yields itself to shearing. 
Many fine specimens may be seen at Como Park in St. Paul 
and elsewhere. In India the wood and twigs are barned for 
incense and on the high Himalayan passes are used for fuel. 
The fruit is gathered in Europe in large quantities for flavor- 
ing gin and is occasionally used in medicine. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties that are used in 
ornamental planting in this country and in Europe, some of 
which are distinguished by the color of the foliage and others 
by the habit of growth which may be columnar or pyramidal 
or dwarf and compact. Some of these varieties in English 
and Dutch gardens are trained into the shapes of globes, 
bowls, animals and other fantastic forms. The Swedish Juni- 
per, one of the most distinct varieties, has erect branches, 
which form a narrow pyramidal head. 



AValniiit Family. 

Trees with alternate, pinnately-compound leaves, no 
stipules. Flowers monoecious; the staminate in catkins with 
or without an irregular calyx and several stamens; the pistil- 
late solitary or in clusters of 2 to 5, their common peduncle 
terminating the shoot of the season; calyx, 3 to 5 lobed; 
stigmas, sessile, 2-lobed, persistent. Ovary 1-celled or 
incompletely 2 to 4 celled with a single ovule erect from it& 
base; ripens into a large fruit, the bony inner part of which 



BLACK WALNUT. 169 

forms the shell of the nut and the fleshy outer part, the husk. 
Seed 4-lobed, filled with fleshy oily embryo and large crum- 
pled or corrugated cotyledons. 

Genus JUGLANS. 

Leaves odd-pinnate with numerous serrate leaflets; peti- 
oles long, grooved on the upper side, gradually enlarged 
towards the base. In falling, the leaves expose large, con- 
spicuous, elevated, obcordate, 5-lobed scars. Flowers 
monoecious, opening in late spring after the leaves; the 
staminate in catkins, solitary or in pairs from the wood of the 
preceding year, each with 8 to 40 stamens on very short fila- 
ments and a 3 to 6-lobed calyx; the pistillate solitary or 
several in a cluster on a branch of the season; calyx 4 toothed, 
bearing in its sinuses 4 small petals; stigmas 2, somewhat 
club shaped and fringed. Fruit large, drupaceous, marked 
at the apex with the remnant of the style and covered with a 
fibrous, spongy, somewhat fleshy, indehiscent epicarp (shuck) 
and a rough, irregularly furrowed endocarp (shell); embryo 
edible. Trees with sweeb, watery juice, furrowed, scaly, res- 
inous, aromatic bark and pith that separates into thin 
transverse layers. To this genus belong our native Black 
Walnut, and Butternut and the English Walnut ( /. regia) of 
commerce, which has been long in cultivation and is prob- 
ably a native of Asia Minor. The Japanese use in large 
quantities a walnut belonging to this genus. The species here 
described have long tap roots and but few lateral roots. For 
this reason they do not transplant easily except when very 
young or unless the tap roots are cut when the seedlings are 
small. In the latter case lateral roots are produced which 
may be saved in transplanting. It is desirable to plant the 
nuts where the trees are to remain. 

Juglans nigra. Black Walnut. 

Leaves 12 to 24 inches long, leaflets in 7 to 11 pairs, ovate- 
lanceolate, lower surface and petioles minutely glandular 
pubescent, aromatic when bruised. Fruit odoriferous, spongy, 
usually globose but occasionally oval, solitary or in pairs 
li to 2 inches in diameter, with a rough dotted surface not as 
deeply furrowed as the Butternut. A large tree sometimes 



170 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 15. Juglans nigra. Black Walnut. 



1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower before an- 
thesis, enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Perianth of staminate 
flower, displayed, enlarged. 5. Stamen, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flower, natural 
size. 7. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, natural size. 8. Leaf, re- 
duced. 9. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. 10. Mature fruit, one-half 
natural size. 



BLACK WALNUT. 171 

100 feet high and 1 to 6 feet or more in diameter When 
growing^ in the ojjen it developes a round head and casts a 
dense shade. 

Distribution. — From western Massachusetts to southern 

Minnesota and eastern Kansas, south to western Florida and 
the valley of the San Antonio river in Texas. In Minnesota 
formerly a common tree along the creek and river bottoms of 
the southern part of the state and in a few locations is still 
rather abundant. 

Propagation. — By seeds which should be gathered in 
autumn, kept stratified with moist leaves or sand over winter 
and sown in the spring. Also grown to some extent by plant- 
ing the seeds in autumn where the trees are to remain. The 
varieties are grown by grafting. Old trees may be top grafted 
like apple trees. 

Properties of tuood.- -Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse 
grained, easily worked and very durable in contact with the 
soil. Color a rich, dark brown with a thin, light sapwood. 
The finished wood has a satiny surface and will take a beauti- 
ful polish. Specific gravity 0.6115; weight of a cubic foot 
38.11 pounds. 

Uses — The Black W^alnut is frequently used for ornament- 
al planting in the parks of the United States and Europe. In 
this section, however, we reach the northern limit of its range 
and find that it is not generally satisfactory when planted in 
the open, but often does vvell in protected locations and on 
deep alluvial soils. It can sometimes be used to advantage 
in timber plantings in the southern half of Minnesota when 
surrounded by some hardier tree to protect it from the wind. 
It is liable to sunscald when the trunk is exposed in this 
section. Many large plantations of this tree have been made 
in Iowa, southern Minnesota and elsewhere. In good lo- 
cations the young trees grow rapidly and soon make good, 
durable fence posts or nut bearing trees. It is one of the 
most valuable woods found in America and is largely used in 
cabinet making, interior finishing, gun stocks, etc. and 
formerly in boat building and for fence rails and posts for 
which it was highly esteemed. This timber is now very scarce. 
The nuts are much sought for and find ready sale. They are 
oily and have a sweet, pleasant taste but become rancid with 



172 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

age. The husks are used for dying and the leaves are sup 
posed to possess medical properties. It was formerly believed 
that this tree could be grown at a profit for its valuable timber 
but it has been found that the wood does not take on its dark 
rich, even color until very old but remains for many years a 
mixture of yellow and brown, hence, its cultivation for timber 
has not proved so profitable as was expected. It will, how- 
ever, make board timber in about twenty-five years. 

Juglans cinerea. Butternut. 

Leaves 15 to 30 inches long; leaflets 11 to 19, oblong, 
lanceolate, pubescent, especially underneath; petioles and 
branchlets clammy pubescent. Fruit 2 to 3 inches long, very 
clammy pubescent, of a rather pleasant odor when fresh, ob- 
long, pointed, 2-celled at the base; nut shell deeply and ir- 
regularly furrowed with rough, ragged ridges; embryo, very 
rich in oil and of a delicious flavor. A tree occasionally 100 
feet high and 3 feet in diameter in forests, but generally much 
smaller. Where it grows in the open, it forms an immense 
spreading top. 

Distribution. — From the valley of the St. Lawrence river 

to eastern Dakota, southward to northern Georgia and north- 
eastern Arkansas. Not common south of the Ohio River. In 
Minnesota common in the southern part except far southwest, 
extends north to Aitkin county where trees have been found 
two feet or more in diameter. 

Propagation. — Same as for Black Walnut. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, rather coarse 
grained, easily w^orked, with a satiny surface capable of re- 
ceiving a beautiful polish, light brown turning darker with 
exposure; sapwood thin and light colored. Specific gravity 
0.4086; weight of a cubic foot 25.46 pounds. 

Uses. — The Buttnut is occasionally used for ornamental 
planting in the parks of this country, but is seldom a safe 
tree to depend on in Minnesota when growing in the open. In 
protected locations in Minnesota it may be used as a shade 
tree, but is more valuable in timber plantings. It is found 
farther north than the Black W^alnut and is somewhathardier. 
The wood is not so valuable as that of the Black Walnut but 
is nevertheless very desirable for interior finishing, cabinet 



BUTTERNUT. 



173 




Plate 16. Juglans cinerea. Butternut. 

1 Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 
3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Diagram of pistillate flower. 5. Diagram of 
staminate flower. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. T. Leaf, reduced. 
8. Winter branch, one-half natural size. 



174 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

making and furniture. The nuts, which ripen in October, con- 
tain a large amount of oil, are delicious when fresh and are 
generally preferred to the nuts of the Black Walnut, but like 
them they become rancid with age. The unripe nuts are 
sometimes gathered early in June when they are tender and 
after removing the clammy pubescent by scalding and rub- 
bing with a coarse cloth make excellent pickles. The inner 
bark is white but becomes light yellow and ultimately dark 
brown upon exposure to the air. It possesses mild cathartic 
properties; that from the root being especially valued as a 
safe cathartic. The acrid leaves have been used as a sub- 
stitute for Spanish flies. Sug-ar of excellent quality has teen 
made from the sap and a dye for coloring cloth a yellow or 
orange color is obtained from the green husks of the fruit 
and from the bark, and formed the, butternut color commonly 
used in the early history of this country. 

Genus HICORIA. 

Leaves alternate, odd-pinnate with few leaflets. Flowers 
monoecious, apetalous; the staminate in clustered lateral cat- 
kins, each cluster on a terminal peduncle; the pistillate 2 to 6 
together on a terminal peduncle; stigmas 2 to 4, large. Fruit 
a smooth or angled nut covered with a f our-valved husk which 
generally separates at maturity. The leaves of most if not 
all the hickories are aromatic and astringent and the bark is 
astringent and bitter. The bark has been successfully used 
in the treatment of dyspepsia and intermittent fevers and in 
homeopathic practice. The Indians used an oil made from 
the nuts. 

Hicoria ovata. ( Gary a alba. ) Shellbark Hickory. 
Shagbark Hickory. 
Leaves 8 to 14 inches long: leaflets 5 (rarely 7), obovate 
to oblong-lanceolate, ciliate; fruit globose, depressed at the 
apex; nut pale or nearly white, more or less flattened, 4- 
angled, thin or thick shelled, covered with thick husk; meat 
highly flavored. Bark of old trees is very shaggy, separat- 
ing into wide, rough strips and often falling away 
in large pieces. A sturdy, beautiful tree, often 70 to 90 feet 
high in forests, in the open forming an inversely conical top 
with pendulous branches. 



HICKORIES. 175 

Distribution. — From Maine and the Valley of the St. Law- 
rence Riyer v\^estward along the southern region of the Great 
Lakes to central Minnesota and Kansas, south to western 
Florida, northern Alabama and eastern Texas. In Minnesota 
common in a few counties in the extreme southeastern portion 
of the state. 

Propagation, — By seeds sown in autumn or stratified over 
winter in moist leaves or sand and sown in the spring; also 
by root sprouts. Grafted only with much difficulty. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, very hard, strong, tough, 
close grained and flexible, not durable when exposed to 
moisture. It is light colored with thin nearly white sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.8872: weight of a cubic foot 52.17 pounds. 

Uses. — The Shell bark Hickory is often very ornamental 
and is used to some extent in park planting. It is also 
planted for the nuts, which find a ready sale. These vary 
greatly in size, thickness of shell and in quality, and none 
but the best should be planted for fruit. The tree is of 
exceedingly slow growth and is not of sufficient hardiness to 
warrant planting it in any but a few very favorable locations 
in southern Minnesota. The wood is largely used for ax 
handles, baskets, fuel and in the manufactui'e of agricultural 
implements, carriages and wao:ons. The second growth 
hickory is tougher and on this account most desirable for 
these purposes. 

Hicoria minima. (Car-ya amara, ) Bitternut Hickory. 
Swamp Hickory. 

Leaves 6 to 10 inches long: leaflets 5 to 9, sessile, lanceo- 
late to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, serrate: buds orange 
yellow in winter, resembling those of the Butternut, openinsf 
by valves which fall away early. Fruit globular; shuck very 
thin: nut yellowish, thin-shelled, bitter. The bark does not 
shell off as in Shellbark Hickory. A slender tree of graceful 
habit, sometimes 80 feet high but within our range much 
smaller. It is a more rapid grower than the other hickories. 

Distribution. — From New England, Ontario, and Minne- 
sota south to Florida and Texas, in moist woods and near 
the borders of streams and swamps. In Minnesota frequent 



176 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 17. Hicoria minima. Bitternut Hickory. 



1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged. 
3. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 5. Cross section of nut. one-half natural size. 6. Longitudi- 
nal section of nut, one-half natural size. 7. Winter branchlet, one-half natural 
size. 



WILLOWS. 177 

in the southern part of the state, extending* through the Big 
Woods north to Mille Lacs County. 

Propagation. — The same as for Shellbark Hickory. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, very hard, strong, toug-h and 
close grained, liable to check badly in drying; color dark 
brown with thick light brown or nearly white sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.7552: weight of a cubic foot 47.06 pounds. 

Uses. — The Bibternut Hickory is a good ornamental tree 
and quite hardy in proper locations in Minnesota. It is prob- 
ably the most desirable of the hickories either for ornamental 
use or for hoop poles in this section. The wood is inferior 
to that of the Shellbark Hickory, but is used for about the 
same purposes. It is said that in early days an oil pressed 
from the nuts was used for illuminating purposes. 

"W^illo^v Family. 

A large family of trees and shrubs mostly inhabiting cold 
climates. Leaves alternate, simple, undivided and furnished 
with stipules which are scale-like and deciduous, or leaf-like 
and persistent. Flowers, dioecious, both kinds in catkins, 
one under each bract or scale of the catkin, without calyx or 
corolla; in some cases the calyx is represented by a gland- 
like cup; ovary 1 or 2-celled. Fruit a 1 or 2-celled, 2-valved 
pod with numerous seeds attached to a parietal or basal 
placenta, ripening in early summer and furnished with long, 
silky down. 

Genus SALIX. 

Leaves generally narrow, long" and pointed. Flowers ap- 
pear before or with the leaves, in terminal or lateral, cylin- 
drical, imbricated, generally erect catkins; two or more dis- 
tinct or united stamens; stigmas 2, short. Fruit a 1-celled 2 
valved pod. Trees or shrubs with smooth round branches 
usually found growing in moist land. A large and valuable 
genus of over one hundred and sixty species, the greater 
number belonging to Europe and Asia. About sixty species 
belong to North America. A dwarf willow is found growing 



178 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

the farthest north of any shrub. Only two tree-like species are 
indigenous within our range, but there are several foreign 
kinds mentioned here that are of much value for cultivation 
in this climate. 

Vropagation. — The willows increase readily from cuttings 
and are seldom grown in any other way. The cuttings grow 
readily at almost any season of the year provided they are 
put in moist soil, even in midsummer, cuttings of firm wood a 
half inch or more in diameter will grow readily if planted in 
moist soil, but the best time to make cuttings is in the fall or 
spring when wood of any age or size will root if properly 
planted. Some of the weeping varieties are grown by top- 
working in upright stocks. 

Uses. — The bark of the trees of all species of Salix with 
bitter bark yields salicylic acid which is now used medicinally 
in the treatment of typhoid fever, gout and rheumatism. Dur- 
ing the Civil war, ground willow bark was used in the treat- 
ment of fevers in some of the southern hospitals when 
quinine could not be obtained. The bark of some species is 
used for tanning leather. The slender tough twigs are used 
extensively for basket making and tying. They are often 
cultivated solely for this purpose. The wood of the Willow 
is not very valuable, but it is used for light fael, for charcoal 
to be used in the manufacture of gunpowder and that of some 
kinds for timber in a limited way. Some kinds are also 
planted largely for holding the banks of streams and for 
windbreaks. For ornamental planting some kinds are used 
that are very pretty in flower and foliage, which quality, 
taken in connection with the ease with which they are propa- 
gated, their hardiness and the rapidity with which they grow, 
have made them largely used. Although most of the Willows 
flourish best when they have abundant moisture at their roots, 
many of them will stand well on any land good enough for 
corn, and a few kinds, such as the White Willow, are among 
the hardiest kind we have for prairie planting. 

The term osier willows is applied to a large number of 
Willows having the quality of furnishing long slender strong 
shoots that are valuable for basket making and similar pur- 
poses. The growing of osiers is a matter of considerable 
importance in. many sections of Europe, but has not been 



WILLOWS. 



179 



found profitable in the United States except on a small scale 
in a few localities. When grown for this purpose, moist rich 
land is selected and the cuttings are set in rows and culti- 
vated with great care. The plants are cut back to the stumps 
each season by the removal of all the new growth. 

A willow known among horticulturists as the Wisconsin 
Weeping Willow (botanical name not known) has been grown 
to a considerable extent here and is our best large Weeping 
Willow. It attains large size in favorable locations, but is 
occasionally killed back by severe winters. 

Salix nigra. Black Willow. 

Leaves vary greatly in 
size and outline on differ- 
ent trees, but are generally 
narrowly lanceolate, long 
pointed, serrulate, some- 
what pubescent especially 
on the lower surface: 
when mature 2i to 5 inches 
long, bright green and 
glabrous above, somewhat 
paler and glabrous be- 
neath and sometimes pube- 
"• "• scent on the underside of 

Fig. 36. Wisconsin Weeping Willow, midribs. Stipules persis- 
tent or soon falling away. Ca.tkins appear with the leaves; 
stamens 3 to 7, distinct. Our largest native willow forming a 
large tree with dark brown or almost black rough flaky bark. 
Distnbution. — Along streams and lakes, New Brunswick 
to eastern Dakota, south to Florida, Texas and Arizona. 

Propagation, — By cuttings, but seedlings may often be 
gathered. 

Properties of loood. — Light, soft, weak, close grained, 
checks badly in drying; light reddish brown with nearly 
white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4456; weight of a cubic 
foot 27.77 pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Willow is seldom used for ornamental 
or timber planting. The wood is used for fuel and the bark 
domesticallv in the treatment of fevers. 




180 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 18. Salix nigra. Black Willow. 



1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate catkin, en- 
larged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of 
ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Summer branch, 
one-half natural size. 



WILLOWS. 



181 




Plate 19. Salix atnygdaloides. Peachleaf Willow. 



1. Flowering branch of stamlnate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Stamlnate flower with scale, en- 
larged. 4. Pistillate flower with scale, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half 
natural size. 6. Summer branch, one-half natural size. 7. Bud and leaf scar. 



182 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Salix amygdaloides. Peachleaf Willow. 

Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, long-pointed, 3 to 
5 or more inches long-, slightly pubescent when young, green 
above, pale and glaucous below with stout yellow or orange 
colored midrib. Stipules often one-half inch broad on vigor- 
ous shoots, but scarcely appearing on the weaker branches. 
Catkins appear with the leaves; stamens 5 to 9, distinct. A 
small tree occasionally 70 feet high. 

Distribution. — Along lakes and streams. Quebec to the 
valley of the Upper Saskatchewan River and Oregon, south 
to Ohio, Missouri and Texas. Common in Minnesota. 

Propagation. — By cuttings. Seedlings can generally be 
gathered. 

Properties of icood. — Light, soft, weak, close grained, light 
brown with thick whitish sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4509: 
weight of a cubic foot 28.10 pounds. 

Uses. — The Peachleaf Willow is not as desirable as several 
other willows for cultivation, but in suitable locations makes 
a very pretty tree. The wood is used for fuel. 

Salix alba. White Willow. 

Leaves lanceolate, taper pointed and tapering to the 
petiole, serrate with thickened teeth, silky on both sides when 
young, less so and pale or glaucous beneath when mature: 
stipules deciduous. Flowers appear in May with the leaves 
at the ends of leafy lateral shoots of the season; stamens two. 
Fruit matures in June. Tree sometimes attains a height of 80 
feet with a trunk 3 or 4 feet in diameter and ascending 
branches. 

Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia, but 
was early brought to this country and has become naturalized 
from the Valley of the St. Law^rence to the Potomac. There 
are many varieties and probably many hybrids of this with 
the American and European species. The form of the White 
Willow commonly used for windbreaks on our prairies has 
been considered by some as a hybrid between S. fragilis and 
S. alba and by others as but a variety of S. alba. The pis- 
tillate tree is most commonly met with here. 

Propagation. — It can be propagated easily from cuttings 
of large or small size. In growing this tree for windbreaks, 



WILLOWS. 



183 




Plate 20. Salix alba. White Willow. 
1. Flowering branch from staminate tree, one-half natural size.''^ 2. Flower- 
ing branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate cat- 
kin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, front view, enlarged. 5. Scale of 
pistillate catkin, rear view, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 
7. Leaf, one-half natural size. 8. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size.2_9. 
Seedling. 



184 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

some planters prefer to use poles instead of common cuttings, 

laying them in furrows in the prepared soil, where they are all 
covered except at intervals of about two feet, at which places 

they sprout and grow. 

.Properties of wood. — Soft, light, tough, strong and very 
flexible. 

Uses, — The White Willow^ is one of the most valuable 
trees to use for windbreaks on our prairies. Wonderfully 
hardy even in dry locations. It sprouts vigorously from the 
stump and furnishes good straight poles of uniform size, 
which if cut in summer and the bark peeled off will last for a 
number of years exposed to ihe weather. When thoroughly 
dried they make fence posts that will last about six years, but 
generally are not durable. The fuel if dried under cover has 
greater value for summer use than is generally supposed. In 
Europe the wood is used for rafters of buildings, for the 
lining of carts used in hauling stone, in turnery, for baseball 
and cricket bats and for any purpose where a very light, strong, 
tough wood is needed; the leaves are used as forage for cattle 
and the bark for tanning leather, for which purpose it is con- 
sidered nearly as good as oak bark. A row of White Willow 
set about four feet apart with barbed wire put on them makes 
a very permanent and serviceable fence. Live willow posts 
or stakes that are used to support barbed wire soon root and 
become permanent trees in moist soil. The White Willow 
will not make a good low hedge as it does not stand very 
close pruning. 

Varieties, — The White Willow has gives rise to a large 
number of varieties, among the best of which are the fol- 
lowing: 

Salix alba vittellina. Coninion Golden Willow. 

A pretty tree at all seasons but particularly so in w^inter 
and early spring on account of its bright yellow bark; form 
like that of the species. This variety has been largely planted 
but is now generally supplanted by the next, which is a better 
ornamental tree. This has become naturalized in this coun- 
try though it is probable that only the pistillate form is found 
in this section. 



WILLOWS. 



185 



Salix alba vittellina (from Russia.) Russian Golden 
Willow. 

A very rapid growing, round, close-topped tree with 
glossy deep green foliage, bright golden colored bark in 

winter, and bright yel- 
/>T * :;•>-./' . low, conspicuous, fragrant, 

^''' " ' '^^ staminate catkins appear- 

ing with the leaves in the 
spring. One of the best 
quick-growing tress for 
this section and very val- 
uable for giving variety 
to lawn and timber plant- 
ings. Under favorable 
conditions a cutting of this 

has been known to make a 
tree 10 inches through the 
trunk with a top that 
spread over 30 feet in eight 
years. The staminate form 
Fig. 37. Russian Golden Willow. is perhaps the Only one 
A round-topped tree. grown in this country. 

Salix alba britzensis. 







<?. y. 



A variety of the White Willow 
with attractive reddish twigs 
in winter, pyramidal form and 
rapid growth. Valuable for 
variety in timber plantings, 
parks, etc. 

Salix alba regalis. {Salts 
regalis. ) 
Royal Willow. 

A distinct form of the White 
Willow forming a small tree or 
shrub; the foliage of which is 
covered with silky down, which 
gives it a silvery appearance. A 
very hardy tree useful for vari- 
ety in ornamental planting. 







Figure 38. Salix alba britzen. 
sis. A conical-shaped tree. 



186 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



Salix pentandra. ( Salix laurifolia of horticulturists. ) 
Xiaurel-Leaf Willow. 

Leaves larger than those of any other of our cultivated 
willows, taper pointed, finely serrate with larg-e stipules; 
upper surface of leaf dark green and shin- 
ing as if varnished. Leaves are very thick 
and so hard that the saw-fly larvae are sel- 
dom found feeding on it. A vigorous grow- 
er when young, making a small, round, 
open topped tree; valuable for variety. 
The only objection to the extensive planting 
of this tree here is a blight, which is occa- 
sionally injurious to it. On this account it 
should be used only in a small way. The 
form planted here bears pistillate flowers. 
Native of Europe. Propagated by cuttings. 

Salix lucida. Shining Willow. 

Leaves 3 to 5 inches long and 1 to li 
inches wide, lanceolate, taper-pointed, dark 
green and glossy on the upper and paler 
on the lower surface with broad yellow 
midribs. Stipules i to i of an inch broad. 




Fig. 39. Leaf 
of Laurel-leaf 



Willow. V2 nat- remaining all summer. Catkins later than 
the leaves; stamens usually 5, distinct. Oc- 
casionally a small tree but within our range a shrub. 

Distribution. — Newfoundland to Hudson Bay, westward to 
base of Rocky Mountains and south to Pennsylvania and 
eastern Nebraska. 

Propagation. — By cuttings and by seeds. 

Uses. — The Shining Willow is a pretty ornamental shrub 
on account of its lustrous green leaves and showy staminate 
flowers. Much resembles the Laurel-Leaf Willow. 

Salix acutifolia. 

Leaves lanceolate-acuminate, dark green and shining 
above, pale glaucous below, crenate, those on strong shoots 
stipulate. Twigs yellowish green, older branches covered 
with a heavy purplish bloom. Catkins thick, stiff and very 



WILLOWS. 



187 




Plate 21. Salix lucida. Shining Willow. 



1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half 
natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate cat- 
kin, enlarged. 6. Mature fruit, enlarged. T. Summer branch, one-half natural 
size. 



188 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

silky, appearino" before the leaves. A very hardy tree or 
shrub of graceful habit attaining- a height of 20 feet. More 
difficult to propagate than most willows and occasionally 
blights severely. 

Salix purpurea pendula. ( S. napoleonis. ) Napoleon 
Willow. 

Leaves li to 2 inches long, linear, finely serrate, green 
and shining above, dull bluish green beneath; petioles short. 
Young twigs and petioles reddish. A spreading shrub but 
when top-worked on an upright stock forms a very pretty tree 




'- v^^:^ 



Fig. 40. Napoleon Willow top-worked 
on White Willow. 

with spreading pendulous branches. Hardy at the Minnesota 
Experiment Station. Known among nurserymen as Xew 
American WilJoic, but often worked on too tender stocks. 

Genus POPULUS. 

Leaves alternate, broad, more or less heart-shaped or 
ovate. Flowers dioecious. Individual trees bearing stami- 
nate and pistillatecatkins and alsocatkins having the two kinds 
of flowers mixed together occasionally occur. Flowers appear 
before the leaves in long, drooping, lateral, cylindrical cat- 
kins, the scales of which are furnished with a fringed margin: 
the calyx is represented by an oblique cup-shaped disk with en- 
tire margin: stamens usually numerous: ovary short: stigmas 



POPLARS. 



189 




Plate 22. Populus tremuloides. Aspen. 

1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate catkin, 
enlarged. 4. Stamen, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 6. 
Longitudinal section of pistil. 7. Mature fruit, natural size. 8. Fruit showing 
mode of dehiscence, natural size. 9. Seed, enlarged. 10. Longitudinal section 
of seed, enlarged. 11. Embryo, enlarged. 12. Fruiting branch, one-half natural 
size. 



190 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

long-, 2-lobed: fruit described under family Salicaceae, ripening- 
before the full development of the leaves in May or June. A 
g-enus of about twenty species of soft wooded trees mostly 
natives of cold climates, one-half of which are found in 
North America. 

Populus tremuloides. Aspen. American or Quaking 
Aspen. 

Leaves ovate or obicular with a sharp, short apex, small, 
smooth on both sides: petiole long^, flattened. Flowers in 
April before the leaves in hairy catkins. Fruit a small, 2- 
valved capsule: seeds very small. Bark smooth, greenish 
white except on very old trees; twigs not ans^ular. This is 
generally a small, short-lived tree, but occasionally it grows 
60 or more feet high. The pendulous leaves tremble in the 
slightest breeze; the silver gray bark is attractive and the 
autumn color of the leaves is one of the purest golden yellows 
found among trees. 

Distribution. — From southern Labrador to southern shores 
of Hudson Bay, to the Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers, south 
to Pennsylvania, Missouri, New Mexico and Lower Califor- 
nia and through all mountain ranges of the west. One of the 
most widely distributed trees of North America. In Minne- 
sota it is found throughout the state and is very common on 
cut-over timber lands, where it is generally the first tree to 
take possession of the land after the pine is cut off. It grows 
most luxuriantly along the borders of swamps and open 
forest glades. The seed is carried long distances by the wind. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which grow freely: but the seeds, 
however, are seldom sown in nurseries as the limited demand 
for this species is easily supplied by the seedlings which 
spring up along the lake shores and sand bars. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, close grained, 
of cottony fiber and soon decays in contact with the soil. It 
is of a light brown color with thick nearly white sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.4032: weight of a cubic foot 25.13 pounds. 

Uses — On account of the color of the bark and the autumn 
color of the leaves an occasional specimen of Aspen can be 
used to advantage to give vai*iety to our tree plantings. 



POPLARS. 191 

Although it ffrows rapidly when youn^ it is of very slow 
growth when older. The wood is used for paper pulp and 
occasionally for interior finishing and for turnery. It makes 
good light fuel if cured under cover. 

Populus grandidenta. Large-tooth Poplar. 

Leaves roundish-ovate w^ith coarse unequal teeth, densely 
covered with silky wool beneath when young, smooth on both 
sides when old: petioles flattened twigs, not angled. Flowers 
in hairy catkins 3 to 4 inches long, the staminate catkins 
longer than the pistillate, stamens about tw^elve; seeds very 
small, dark brown. A medium sized slender tree withgreenish 
grey bark rarely over 75 feet high and 2 feet in diameter; re- 
sembles the Aspen and is sometimes confounded with it but 
unlike the common Aspen it rapidly attains considerable size 
under cultivation. 

DMributton. — From Nova Scotia west to northern Minne- 
sota, south to North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee. In 
Minnesota throughout most of the state in forests, usually in 
rich moist sandy soil near swamps and streams. 

Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. 

Properties of icoocl. — Light, soft, and close grained but no^ 
strong; light brown with thin, white sapwood. Specific 
gravity 0.4632; w^eight of a cubic foot 28.87 pounds. 

Uses. — The Largetooth Poplar can sometimes be planted in 
timber belts to advantage. It makes good straight poles for 
various farm purposes and for framing; it is also used for 
wood pulp and occasionally in turnery and for w^oodenware. 

Varieties. — Populus grandidenta has given rise to several 
varieties with pendulous branches which when grafted on 
straight stems of the species are used in ornamental planting 
and form the best weeping poplars. 

Populus balsamifera. Balsam Poplar. Tacamahac. 

Leaves ovate, lanceolate, acute or taper pointed, smooth 
on both sides: petioles not prominently flattened: buds in 
spring are- large and abundantly covered and saturated with 
a fraerrant aromatic varnish. Flowers appear in April or May: 
the staminate catkins 2 to 3 inches, and the pistillate 4 to 6 



192 



TREES OF MINNESOTA, 




Plate 23. Populus balsamifera. Balsam Poplar. 



1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half 
natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate cat 
kin. enlarged. 0. Scale without flower, displayed, enlarged. T. Mature fruit. 
8. Seed, enlarged, i). Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, en- 
larged. 11. Winter branch showing buds, one-half natural size. 



BALSAM POPLARS. 193 

inches in length: stamens very numerous, purple. Seeds with 
a large cottony float. A large, upright tree with narrow 
straight top, and nearly smooth gray bark, the largest of the 
sub-arctic trees. 

Distrihution. — Over the low bottom lands and swamp 
borders of the greater part of British America and the 
northern part of the United States. In Minnesota found 
throughout the northern part of the state. 

Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, close grained; 
light brown with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific grav- 
ity 0.3635: weight of a cubic foot 22.65 pounds. 

Uses. — The Balsam Poplar and its varieties are occasion- 
ally used for ornamental planting, but while they are of rapid 
growth and occasionally make good specimens, their open 
habit and liability to die in the top make them undesirable for 
extensive planting. The wood is excellent for paper pulp. 
The buds are used in liniments: their virtues probably being 
analagous to those of turpentine and the balsams. 

VaHeties. — . 

Populus balsamifera candicans. Balm of Gilead. 

This form has a wider leaf, longer and more resinous 
buds, more spreading branches, heavier wood, and is a more 
ornamental tree than the species. It is common in plantings 
in the northeastern states and eastern Canada. 

Populus balsamifera intermedia. 
A European form vvith close, upright habit, and very 
thick hard oval leaves which are whitened beneath. It is 
known to horticulturists as P. laurifolia and P. siberica pyra- 
midalis. 

Populus balsamifera viminalis. 

A native of northern Europe. The tree is of slender 
growth with a slightly weeping habit when old; it has sharply 
angled twigs and willow-like leaves. Known to horticultur- 
ists as P. lindleyana^ P. salicifoUa, P. crispa, P. dudleyi and 
P. pyramidalis suaveolens. 

Populus balsamifera latifolia. 

A variety including several Asiatic forms with ovate 



194 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




leaves, cylindrical twigs and g-eneral habit of the Balsam 
Poplar. The forms of this are known to horticulturists here 
as P. Nolesti and P. Wohsky. 

Populus angustifolia. Narrowleaf Cottonwood. 

Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, narrow at base, 

g-reen on both sides; branches 
rather slender with smooth bark. 
Catkins densely flowered, H to 
2 inches long*: stamens 12 to 20: 
pistillate catkins lengthen as the 
fruit grows and when the seeds 
are ripe the catkins are from 
two-and-a-half to four inches 
long. Tree much smaller than 
the common Cottonwood, it sel- 
dom being more than fifty feet 
high and fifteen inches in diam- 
eter, resembling a willow more 
than a poplar. 

Distribution. — It is found 
along streams in Montana, As- 
siniboia, Black Hills of South Dakota and northwestern 
Nebraska to Arizona. It is the common poplar of southern 
Montana, eastern Idaho, Wyoming, Utah and northern 
Colorado. 

Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft and weak; light brown 
with thin, nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.3912; 
weight of a cubic foot 24.38 pounds. 

Uses. — The Narrowleaf Cottonwood is used as a shade and 
street tree in towns of Colorado and Utah for which purpose 
it does very well if provided with water and soon forms a 
conical shapely head. It is hardy in Minnesota, but has 
been planted here but a few years. 

Populus deltoides. ( P. moniUfera ) Cottonwood. Car- 
olina Poplar. Yellow Cottonwood. 

Leaves large, deltoid or broadly ovate, usually abruptly 
acuminate, coarsely crenate: petioles laterally compressed. 



Fig. 41. Leaves of Narrow- 
natural 



leaf Cottonwood. 
size. 



Va 



COTTONWOODS, 



195 




Plate 24. Populus deltoides. Cottonwood. 



1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate catkin, en- 
larged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. Cross section of ovary, en- 
larged. G. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Mature fruit. 8. Seed 
enlarged. 



196 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Twig-s and smaller branches thick, smoother but sharp angled 
or winged, at length becoming round. When the leaves un- 
fold they are gummy and fragrant with a balsamic ©dpr, and 
covered more or less with white soft hairs; at mattirji^^,they 
are thick, leathery and green on both sides. Catkins pend- 
ulous; the staminate densely flowered and from three to four 
inches in length and a half inch in thickness; the pistillate 
sparsely flowered, thin stemmed and often a foot long before 
the ripening of the seeds. Stamens sixty or more to each 
flower. Seed oblong, 1-12 of an inch in length, and surrounded 
by a tuft of long hairs which aid in its distribution. Tree 
sometimes a hundred feet high with trunk occasionally seven 
or eight feet in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Quebec south to Florida and west to 
the base of the Rocky Mountains, from Alberta to New Mexico 
along banks of streams where it often forms extensive groves. 
In Minnesota common in the southern part of the state, but 
rare farther north. 

Propagation. — By seeds and by cuttings. Seedlings can 
be obtained in large quantities on the sand bars along our 
rivers and on shores of receding lakes and this is the chief 
source of supply. The opinion is common that seedlings are 
longer lived than plants from cuttings. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, spongy and weak although 
close grained; dark brown with thick nearly white sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.3889; weight of a cubic foot 24.24 pounds. 

Uses. — The Cottonwood has been largely used in the 
western states for timber and fuel, as a shade tree and for 
windbreaks. For all these purposes it is a very inferior tree 
but on account of its abundance, rapid growth and hardiness 
it has almost necessarily been largely used in the pioneer 
work of settlement. As a timber tree it is inferior on account 
of its timber warping badly in drying and being extremely 
difficult to season. As a tree for shade and windbreaks it is 
not so valuable as the Green Ash, White Willow, White Elm 
or Box Elder; on the dry prairie it is subject to leaf rust, is 
short lived and fails to make a shade dense enough to keep 
the grass out of groves. The pistillate form is objectionable 
on account of the cottony floats with which it fills the air 



COTTONWOODS. 197 

when shedding" its seed. It has, however, done ^ood service 
in our western states and may continue to be of service in 
first planting's, but our people had better plant longer lived 
and more desirable trees mixed in with it to replace it when it 
fails. Occasionally, however, the Cottonwood can be used to 
advantage where a quick tree effect is wanted, for where it has 
plenty of water it will make a g-reat stately tree in a very 
short time. If one wishes to plant Cottonwood and avoid the 
* 'cotton," which is so objectionable, cuttings from the stami- 
nate tree only should be used as this form produces no cot- 
ton. The wood of the Cottonwood is used for cheap packing* 
cases, for paper pulp and for fuel. For fuel and lumber the 
wood should be dried under cover as it decays very quickly 
when exposed to moisture. 

Yellow Cottonwood. In some sections along the Missis- 
sippi and Missouri rivers is found what is known as Yellow 
Cottonwood, which it is difficult or quite impossible to distin- 
guish from the common or White Cottonwood by any of its 
exter-nal characters, but there is a very distinct difference 
in the wood. Some good authorities have thought this dif- 
ference associated with the sex of the trees, but this is im- 
probable as the form seems localized. 

What is known as Yellow Cottonwood lumber is highly 
esteemed for turnery and various purposes for which Tulip 
Poplar ( Liriod€7idron tuUpifera) is used and is manufactured 
in large quantities. It has also been used for the siding of 
houses with good results. The characters of the wood of 
each are quite clearly given in a letter recently received from 
the "Three States Lumber Co.," of Cairo, 111., from \vhich 
the following is taken: 

"The Cottonwood belt extends along the Mississippi River 
below Cairo, and there is also considerable along the Mis- 
souri River. The Cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley 
consists mostly of Yellow Cottonwood. This generally grows 
on low moist land and any Cottonwood that is found growing 
on land that is subject to overflow is generally the soft 
yellow variety, known as Yellow Cottonwood. There is some 
White Cottonwood g-rowing in the southern part of Illinois, 
on high, dry ground. It is not possible to distinguish one 



198 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

from the other by the leaves, as in such comparison there is^ 
no difference. 

'•Yellow Cottonwood grows very round at the bottom and 
holds to size much better than White Cottonwood. It gener- 
ally has a thick bark: what we term as a corrugated bark. 

"White Cottonwood has a much thinner and softer bark 
and is very apt to have a heavy spur root at the bottom. We 
mean by that it is liable to grow up somewhat flat-sided and 
ridged near the bottom of the trees. This is somewhat 
similar to the growth of oak. 

"Yellow Cottonwood will saw up very smooth; is soft and 
tender and must be handled very carefully after being manu- 
factured into lumber in order to prevent the splitting of the 
boards or their ends. It w^ill dress out through a planer with 
a very smooth surface and will break off square; it will alsa 
take a very nice polish after being surfaced. 

"White Cottonwood is tough and stringy, is very hard oa 
saws in manufacturing, and will sometimes bend almost 
double before it will break, and after breaking the ends will 
be rough. 

"A White Cottonwood board put through a planer will not 
dress out smooth the entire surface, but there will be more or 
less spots that are fuzzy and rough, which is a serious objec- 
tion to the consumer, as it will not take an even polish. A 
White Cottonwood board exposed to the sun will also warp 
and twist to a much greater extent than a Yellow Cottonwood 
board. 

"Yellow Cottonwood lumber is not strictly yellow consider-^ 
ing it from a color standpoint, nor is it strictly white. There 
is a tinge in the lumber which impresses you as different from 
a White Cottonwood board, which to the eye is very distinct.'* 

Varieties, — 

Populus deltoides aurea. ( P. Van Gertii, Bailey, } 
Goldenleaf Cottonwood. 

This variety of the Cottonwood is very desirable on ac- 
count of the bright yellow leaves on the new growth in sum- 
mer. It grows freely and in Minnesota has proved as healthy 
as the species. It is valuable for occasional use to give 



BLACK POPLAR. 199 

variety to windbreaks and is said to be more largely planted 
in Europe for park decoration than any other American tree. 

Populus nigra. Black Poplar. 

Leaves broadly triangular, sometimes with tapering or 
rounded base, smaller, less deeply toothed and shorter in 
proportion to their width than those of the Cottonwood which 
they resemble; leaf stalk flattened. The tree has generally a 
pyramidal habit of growth and dark foliage. It is less lus- 
trous than the Cottonwood and grows more slowly. This is 
probably the tree known in some localities as Norway Poplar 
or Norway Cottonwood. What has been sent out under the 
name of Populus hetulifolia is probably a form of this species. 

Distribution, — Europe and Asia. "It must now, however, 
be regarded as naturalized in this country, having become 
thoroughly established in many localities." 

Propagation. — Almost entirely by cuttings in this country. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, compact, not strong. 
Specific gravity of air-dried wood 0.45. 

;!.. Uses.— The Black Poplar and its several 

y\^ varieties are used for shade and ornamental 

iJ'jv ., trees where a quick elf ect is needed. The wood 

i^^'&- ^^ used for cheap packing cases, crates and 

for light fuel. In pharmacy the buds are used 
for preserving fats. 

^'^IF^^i T 7< rieties . — 

Populus nigra italica. 

Lombardy Poplar. 

A common tree with upright branches, 
making a very straight columnar growth, and 
on this account very conspicuous. Leaves 
p. small and generally with a more tapering base 

ivorabar- than the species. This is one of the charac- 
^ ^^ ^^ teristic trees of Italy. Its common name is de- 
rived from Lombardy, one of the provinces of Italy. The 
treeis supposed to be a native of Persia and Asia Minor. 
Its peculiar form gives the landscape a crude look where it is 
much used. Single specimens, however, may be occasionally 
planted to advantage to give variety to shelter belts. It is 




200 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

hardy in moist soil and on our average prairie soil makes- 
a g-ood grrowth while young, but soon becomes ragged in the 
top, and loses some of its branches and occasionally dies. 
When it becomes ragged in appearance it should be cut back, 
as it will then often renew itself. The tree is generally short- 
lived in this section. It does not afford shade enough for a 
forest or shade tree and does not make a good wind break, 

Populus alba. White Poplar. Abele. 

Leaves roundish, slightly heart-shaped, wavy toothed or 
lobed; the under surface, woolly white, especially early in 
the season. Branches round, without angles; buds small. A 
large spreading tree of rapid growth very much disposed to- 
sucker from the root. It has given rise to many varieties 
that differ from the species in form of tree and leaf and in 
other particulars. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia Minor; naturalized in the 
United States. 

Propagation. — By cuttings and suckers. 

Properties of wood. — White, soft, light, close grained and 
easily worked. Specific gravity of air-dried wood 0.48. 

Uses. — The White Poplar is seldom planted as it is not so 
ornamental as some of the varieties. It is a very hardy tree 
but is occasionally killed back in very trying locations. It 
is well adapted to planting in shelter belts where its sucker- 
ing habit is not a drawback to its presence. The wood is 
adapted to inside finishing and to many of the pgurposes for 
which White Pine is used. "It is probable that we have no 
tree with valuable wood that will reach saw log size on our 
prairie soils as soon as this." 

Varieties. — 

Populus alba nivea. (P. argentea^ Koch.) Snowy^ 
Poplar. 

This is the commonest form of the White Poplar in tbi& 
country. It is known by the snow-white under surface of its 
foliage and the 3 to 5-lobed maple-like leaf. It is sometimes 
wrongly called Silver Maple from the resemblance of its foli^ 
age to that of a maple. The foliage is so very obtrusive that 
it is likely to be used too frequently in lawn plantings. It 



WHITE POPLAR. 



201 




Plate 25. Populus alba. White Poplar. 

1. Flowering branch from staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flower- 
ng branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate cat- 
kin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. Summer branch, one- 
half natural size. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Winter branch- 
let, one-half natural size. 8. Seedling. 



202 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

may. however, be used sparingly to good purpose to brighten, 
up groups of trees and shrubbery which present too gloomy 
an aspect. It should seldom, if ever, be used as a street tree 
as masses of it seem to be out of harmony with every good 
thing in the landscape. In closely settled communities the 
down on the leaves often becomes filled with soot and gives 
the tree a dirty appearance. Hardy everywhere and easily 
grown from cuttings. 

Populus alba canescens. Silver Poplar. 

This differs from the above in having leaves broad or 
nearly circular in general outline, notched but not lobed but 
like it in that the leaves and young shoots are downy. 

Populus alba bolleana. Bolle Poplar. 

A form of the White Poplar of the same narrow upright 
habit of growth as the Lombardy Poplar, 
Leaves somewhat deeper lobed but with the 
same cottony covering. It differs from the 
common White Poplar in that it does not 
sucker from the root and is more difficult to 
propagate from cuttings which require to be 
calloused before planting. It is striking^ 
in aspect and should be used sparingly in 
ornamental planting. 

Fig 43 Leaf of Populus laurlfolia. (P. certinensis,) 

a?l-'d^ '^±Z\ ?Sr Certinensis Poplar. 

Leaves on the old wood or slow growing twigs are very 
different from those on vigorous growing shoots. The former 
are broadly oval with finely serrate margins and on cylindri- 
cal twigs. The strong shoots are deeply angled or grooved 
and the foliage on them is wavy in outline. The trees are 
sometimes confounded with the Cottonwood from which they 
are very distinct especially in the leaves which are on shorter 
more rigid petioles. A large tree of rapid growth. 

Distribution. — Introduced from Russia. Probably a native 
of northern Europe and Siberia. 

Fropagation. — Easily grown from cuttings. 

Froperties of icood.—JAght^ soft, easily worked and re- 




BIRCHES. 208 

ported as being- valuable for many of the purposes for which 
pine timber is commonly used. 

Uses. — The Certinensis Poplar has been tried largely in 
this section and has proved to be a good quick growing tree for 
prairie planting. In some localities, however, ithas been infested 
with a borer which has occasionally done much injury and led 
to the impression that it is not so hardy as the Cottonwood. 
The foliage seems to resist the attacks of the leaf fungus 
iDetter than the Cottonwood. 



Bircli Earaily. 

Genus BETTJLA. 

Flowers monoecious, apetalous, appearing before or with 
the leaves; the staminate in long pendulous catkins; stamens 
2; the pistillate in erect cylindrical catkins; ovary naked, 2- 
celled. Fruit a small nut surrounded by a wing and covered 
by the enlarged scale of the catkin, ripening in autumn. 
Ijeaves alternate, simple, dentate or serrate. Trees or shrubs 
with watery juice. A large genus represented by many species. 
The bark contains a resinous balsamic oil sometimes used in 
tanning leather. In parts of this country and Canada the 
bark and leaves of various birches are esteemed as domestic 
remedies for diseases of the skin, for rheumatism and gout. 
An oil obtMned from the inner bark by distillation is also 
used externally for the same purpose. The sweet sap of many 
species is used as a beverage and is sometimes made into 
wine. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which should be sown when 
gathered or stratified over winter and sown in the spring and 
the seedlings given some shade during the first season. The 
varieties are propagated by budding, grafting and inarching 
on the parent species. 



204 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 26. Betula papyrifera. Canoe Birch. 
1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Lateral branch, showing un- 
folding leaves, stipules and pistillate catkins, one-half natural size. 3. Fruit- 
ing branch, one-half natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, rear view, en- 
larged. .5. Staminate flower, enlarged. 6. Stamen, enlarged. 7. Scale bearing 
pistillate flowers. 8. Scale of fruiting catkin. 9. Nut. enlarged. 10. Longi- 
tudinal section of fruit. 



BIRCHES. 205 

Betula papyrifera. Canoe Birch. Paper Birch. 
White Birch. 

Leaves ovate or heart-shaped, dark green on the upper 
side. The bark is reddish on the tv/igs under four or five 
years old and white on the older branches and trunk, and 
readily separated into papery sheets. A good sized tree 
frequently 60 or 7U feet high with a trunk from two to three 
feet in diameter or perhaps in severe locations dwarfted to a 
mere shrub. 

Distribution. — Throughout Canada to Arctic Ocean 
("Widest range of any Canadian tree") south to northern 
Pennsylvania, central Michigan and northern Nebraska and 
northwestern Washington. In Minnesota generally common 
in all but the southwestern part of the state. 

Propagation. — See genus Betula. 

Properties of wood. — Light, strong, hard, tough and very 
close grained but not durable. It is light brown tinged with 
red, with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5955; 
weight of a cubic foot 37.11 pounds. 

Uses. — The Canoe Birch is a tree of good form and pretty 
habit; it is especially beautiful in the spring when the young 
leaves are unfolding and in the winter is valuable for the con- 
trast afforded by its white bark with other plants. It lends 
variety to windbreaks and lawn plantings. Prefers a moist 
soil but does well on anj. retentive soil, and is perfectly hardy. 
The wood is largely used in the making of spools and shoe 
pegs, in the manufacture of wood pulp and for fuel. It is one 
of the very few woods that burn well when green. It decays 
quickly and should always be cured under cover. The Indians 
of the north employ it for their sledges and paddles, the 
frames of their snow shoes and handles of their hatchets. 
The tough, resinous, durable bark of this tree is impervious 
to water and readily separated into layers. It is used by the 
Indians for covering their canoes and houses and for making 
baskets, drinking cups, etc. 

Betula alba. European White Birch. 

Leaves small, somewhat triangular and tapering, very 
smooth and glossy. Stem and older branches chalkywhite; 



206 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



new growth with reddish or dark brow^n bark. It closely re- 
sembles the Canoe Birch. 

Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia and is 
l^ecoming- naturalized in localities in the United States. 

Propagntion. — See genus Betula. 

Properties of wood. — Fairly heavy, moderately hard, does 
not split well, not durable. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.64. 

Uses. — The European White Birch is used here for orna- 
mental plantings, the same as the Paper Birch though it is a 
smaller tree. In Russia the bark is used in the tanning of 
leather for its preservative qualities and delightful odor. 
Many parts of the tree are used in pharmacy. 

Vameties. — There is a large number of cultivated varieties 
of the European White Birch among which the following is 
the most highly esteemed. 

Betula alba pendula laciniata. Cutleaf Weeping' 
Birch. 

This is a very handsome tree with finely divided leaves 
and a drooping habit to the smaller branches. Desirable for 

lawn and park planting in re- 
tentive moisc soil but is very 
short-lived in dry locations. 

Betula nigrra. River Birch. 

Red Birch. 
Leaves broadly ovate, acute 
or obtuse at apex, wedge-shaped 
at base, irregularly serrate or 
somewhat lobed: when mature 
dark green and glabrous above, 
pale and glabrous or tomentose 
beneath. Flowers open in early 
spring; staminate catkins mostly 
clustered in 2's or 3's, 2i to 3i 
inches long; pistillate catkins 
soft downy, oblong, cylindrical; 
catkins in fruit 1 to li inches 
long and about i inch in diam- 
eter; fruiting bracts tomentose, about equally lobed; nut 
broadly ovate and wider than its wrings, pubescent at its base; 




Figure 44. Leaf of Cutleaf 
Birch, 3/2 natural size. 



BIRCHES. 



207 




Plate 27. Betula lutea. Yellow Bireh. 



1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged. 3. 
Pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 5. Nut, 
enlarged. 6. Scale of fruiting catkin, enlarged. 7. Winter branch, showing 
staminate catkin, one-half natural size. 



208 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

bark reddish brown. Sometimes a larg-e tree but very often 
made up of spreading stems forming- a low bushy tree. 

Distribution. — Massachusetts to Minnesota and south to 
Florida and Texas, where it attains its largest size. Gener- 
ally found along river banks and in moist places. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which ripen in June and should 
be sown at once, making plants eight to ten inches high by 
autumn. 

Properties of icood, — Light, rather hard, strong and close 
grained. It is light brown with lighter colored sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.5762; weight of a cubic foot 35.91 pounds. 

Uses. — The River Birch is seldom used as an ornamental 
tree, although it is very beautiful and does well in any good 
retentive soil. The wood is used for furniture, cabinet 
making, wooden shoes, ox yokes and in turnery. 

Betula lutea. Yellow Birch. Graj' Birch. 

Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, wedge-shaped or sligEtly 
heart-shaped at the base. Bark of trunk yellowish gray and 
somewhat silvery, separating into thin layers and hanging 
loosely coiled up in rolls, giving old trunks a very ragged 
appearance. Fruiting catkins short, oblong. The inner 
bark, twigs and leaves spicy, aromatic, similar to winter- 
green, but much less so than B. lenta. A large and very 
valuable timber tree. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland to the valley of the 
Rainy River, and south to North Carolina and Tennessee. 
In Minnesota common in woods in north half of the state and 
rare in the western and southwestern portion. 

Propagation. — See genus Betula. 

Properties of 6froo(^.-— Heavy, very strong, hard and close 
grained with a satiny surface that takes a fine polish; it is 
light brown tinged with red with thin white sapwood. Specific 
gravity 0.6553; weight of a cubic foot 40.84 pounds. 

Uses. — The wood of the Yellow Birch is one of the most 
valuable of our northern woods and is sometimes termed 
American Mahogany. It is largely used in the manufacture 
of fine furniture, hubs of wheels and for small wooden articles 
such as clothes pins, pill boxes, etc. As fuel it is much 
superior to Canoe Birch. The bark is used to some extent for 



HOP HORNBEAM. 



209 




Plate 28. Ostrya virginiana. Hop Hornbeam. 

1. FloweriDg branch, one-half natural size. 2. Scale of staminate catkin, en- 
enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Diagram of pistillate inflorescence. 5. 
Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flower enclosed in bract and 
bractlets, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal 
.section of fruiting involucre, showing nut, one-half natural size. 9. Longitudinal 
section of nut, natural size. 



210 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

tanning purposes; the volatile oil used for imparting the 
flavor of Birch to candies, soda water, etc. is derived to some 
extent from this species though mostly from the Sweet Birch 
[B. lenta.) It requires a cold moist soil to develop its best 
form and suifers severely from drouth; on this account it is 
not desirable as an ornamental tree or for prairie planting. 

Genus OSTRYA. 

Flowers monoecious, apetalous; the staminate naked in 
long pendulous catkins: the pistillate in erect loose catkins: 
ovary 2-celled, inferior, surrounded by small deciduous bracts 
and each enclosed in a sac-like involucre which growls and 
forms a sort of cluster, like that of the common hop. l^eaves 
alternate. Only one species comes within our range. 

Ostrya virginiana. Hop Hornbeam. Ironwood. 
Lever Wood. 

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, very sharply 
and doubly serrate, green above and downy beneath. Flowers 
minute, appearing with the leaves. Seed in short imbricated 
catkin-like clusters, ripe in August but hanging on into late 
autumn: nut i to i of an inch long. Bark on old trees dark 
brown and furrowed, not smooth as in Carpinus. A hand- 
some tree, generally small but occasionally a foot or more in 
diameter. 

Distribution. — From Cape Breton to northern Minnesota, 
and Black Hills of Dakota and south to northern Florida and 
eastern Texas. In Minnesota common throughout the tim- 
bered portions of the state except close to the shore of Lake 
Superior. 

Propagation. — Generally grown from seeds but may be 
grown from layers or grafts. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and tough, 
exceedingly close grained, durable in contact with the soil 
and susceptible of a fine polish. It is light brown tinged 
with red or often nearly white with thick pale sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.8284; weight of a cubic foot 51.62 pounds. 

Uses. — The Hop Hornbeam is a very beautiful, hardy 
tree and is occasionally used for ornamental purposes, but 
on account of its rather slow growth it is not generally desir- 



BLUE BEECH. 



211 




Plate 29. Carpintjs caroliniana. Blue Beech. 



1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2, Scale of staminate catkin, 
enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. 
Pistillate flower with bract and bractlets, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half 
natural size. 7. Nut with involucre, one-half natural size. 8. Nut, enlarged. 
9. Longitudinal section of nut, enlarged. 10. Winter branch, one-half natural 
size. 11. Staminate catkin in winter, enlarged. 



212 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

able for this purpose. The wood is used for fence posts, 
levers, mallets, handles of tools, and medicinally in homeo- 
pathic practice. 

Genus CARPINUS. 

Tall, slender trees or small shrubs. About 12 species in 
the northern hemisphere, only one of which is indigenous to 
North America. 

Carpinus caroliniana. Blue Beech. Water Beech. 
Hornbeam. 
Leaves ovate, oblong, sharply serrate, pale blue-green on 
upper surface and light yellow-green on the lower, smooth 
and thin, 2i to 4 inches long, resembling those of the common 
Beech. Flowers monoecious, appearing with the leaves; the 
staminate in rathar dense catkins and the pistillate in small 
slender loose catkins with a 3-lobed bractlet to each seed. 
Fruit in loose clusters at the ends of the new growth, with 
large 3-lobed bracts to the involucre, ripening late in the 
autumn. The nut is 1-6 to i of an inch long. Shrubs or 
trees 20 or more feet high with smooth, grayish bark and 
stems often deeply furrowed. 

Distribution. — From southwestern Quebec westward to 
northern Minnesota and eastern Nebraska and south to 
Florida and Texas. Also found in southern Mexico and 
Central America. In Minnesota common throughout the 
south half of the state along streams and around lakes. 

Propagation, — By seeds, which grow irregularly. The 
varieties may be grafted or budded on seedling stocks. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and close 
grained: light brown with thick nearly white sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.7286; weight of a cubic foot 15. 11 pounds. 

Uses. — The graceful habit, dark blue-green foliage and 
(beautiful autumn tints of the Blue Beech make it a desirable 

tree for parks and lawns on good soil in somewhat sheltered 
^'situations. The wood is so very tough that it was used by the 
.,early settlers in the northern states for brooms, ox-gads, 

withes, etc. The toughest wood of our northern forests. 



CHESTNUT. 



213 




Plate 30. Castanea dentata. Chestnut. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged. 
3. Diagram of pistillate flower cluster. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Longi- 
tudinal section of involucre of pistillate flowers. 6. Portion of fruiting branch, 
one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 8. 
Involucral spine. 9. End of young branchlet. 



214 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus CASTANEA. 

Trees or shrubs with watery juice and serrate straight 
veined leaves. Flowers monoecious, strong smelling, in 
axillary catkins near the ends of the branches, appearing 
after the leaves. The staminate flowers in erect or spreading 
yellowish cylindrical catkins; calyx mostly 6-parted: stamens 
numerous, sometimes with abortive ovary; filaments slender. 
The fertile flowers usually 2 to 5 in an ovoid scaly prickly in- 
volucre at the base of the androgynous catkins; calyx with a 
6-lobed border crowning the mostly 6-celled ovary and usual- 
ly with 4 to 12 abortive stamens; ovules 2 in each cavity butonly 
one to each ovary usually maturing; styles corresponding in 
number with the cavities in the ovary, slender, exserted; stig- 
mas small. Involucre of fertile flowers enlarging and becom- 
ing globose, mostly 4-valved: in fruit a thick, very prickly 
bur enclosing from 1 to 3 ovoid nuts. Cotyledons very thick, 
cohering and remaining underground in germination. 

Castanea dentata. Chestnut. 

L.eaves oblong lanceolate, pointed, acute at base, serrate 
with coarse pointed teeth; when mature smooth and green on 
both sides. Fruit sweet and edible, ripening in autumn. A' 
large forest tree with gray bark. 

Distribution. — Maine and Ontario to Michigan and Ten- 
nessee. 

Propagation.— Most commonly by seed which should be 
sown in autumn or stratified over winter and sown in the 
spring. The seed is very difficult to preserve in good con- 
dition for germination unless carefully stratified out of doors. 
When dried it soon loses its vitality and when stratified in 
the cellar is very liable to mould. The foreign sorts of which 
there are a number in cultivation are mostly propagated by 
grafting on the species. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, coarse grained, 
liable to check and warp in drying, easily split, very durable 
in contact with the soil, reddish brown with thin light colored 
sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4504; weight of a cubic foot 
28.07 pounds. 

Uses. — Within and near its range the Chestnut is an im- 
portant and very fast growing timber tree that readily re- 



OAKS. 215 

news itself from sprouts from the roots. As an ornamental 
tree it is highly esteemed wherever it is hardy. In this section 
it is not sufficiently hardy to warrant any extensive planting 
of it but has held on well for twenty years in Houston county 
where are found thi-ifty trees eight inches in diameter and 40 
feet high at the home of Mr. J. S. Hariis. In the forest plant- 
ation at the Minnesota Experiment Station the young trees 
are doing very well. 

The wood is used in the manufacture of cheap furniture, 
for interior linishing of houses, for railway lies, fence posts 
and rails. Its durability is due to the large amount of tan- 
nic acid which it contains. An extract of the wood is largely 
used in tanning. 

Oak Family. 

Genus QUERCUS. 

A very large genus of about 203 species which are not 
always clearly defined. The four here described are nearly 
distinct, but there are great variations in the species and 
many undoubted hybrids. Flowers greenish or yellowish, 
monoecious: the staminate in slender naked catkins, each 
flower consisting of a 4 to 7-parted or lobed calyx and 4 to 
12 stamens: the pistillate flowers scattered or somewhat clus- 
tered, each consisting of a nearly 3-celled, 6-ovuled, inferior 
ovary with a 3-lobed stigma and enclosed by a scaly bud-like 
involucre which becomes the hardened cup (cupule) around 
the base of the fruit, which is a rounded 1-celled nut or acorn. 
Cotyledons remain underground in germination. All our 
species flower in the spring and shed their acorns in the 
autumn of the same or following year. This genus is readily 
divided into the White Oak and the Black Oak classes. 

The White Oak class is characterized by leaves with 
rounded lobes, teeth that are never bristle pointed; edible 
acorns maturing the first year, inner surface of shell 
glabrous; wood hard, close grained, durable; tree with deep 
permanent tap root. 



216 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

The Black Oak class is chai^acterized by leaves having- 
acute lobes and bristle-pointed teeth; acorns bitter, maturing- 
the second year, inner surface of shell of acorn woolly; wood 
porous and brittle; roots spreading-, seldom having clearly 
defined tap roots except when young. 

Oak bark is used for tanning leather. The cork of com- 
merce is the older bark of the Quercus suher of southern 
Europe. Galls caused by insects puncturing the young and 
tender shoots are produced on the branches of most oak trees 
and are imported in large quantities from Asia Minor, China 
and elsewhers to be used in the manufacture of inks and dyes. 
The bark of most species is tonic and astringent and as a de- 
coction is sometimes employed as an external remedy. 

Propagation. — All the species grow readily from seeds 
which have been kept properly, but if allowed to get dry they 
are liable to lose their vitality. The seedlings have tap roots 
often 3 to 4 feet long when the top is not more than a foot 
high. On this account the trees are often very difficult and 
uncertain to transplant, but if the tap roots are cut off a foot 
from the surface of the ground when the trees are one year 
old they form side roots and then may be moved with a 
reasonable degree of certainty within the next few years be- 
fore they have formed new tap roots. 

Quercus alba. White Oak. 

Leaves short petioled, oblong or obovate in outline, ob- 
liquely cut into 3 to 9 oblong or linear and obtuse mostly en- 
tire lobes, smooth excepting when young, pale or glaucous 
underneath, bright green above, turning to a soft wine color 
in autumn. Fruit an edible acorn maturing the first year, 
hence borne on the shoot of the season, f to 1 inch long, ob- 
long, often peduncled, not more than one-third covered by the 
hemispherical saucer-shaped naked cup which is rough or 
tubercled at maturity. A noble and picturesque tree some- 
times attaining a height of 100 feet with a trunk 6 feet in 
diameter but much smaller within our range. Its bark is 
rough with longitudinal fissures and of a whitish gray color* 
whence its name. It is also conspicuous from its holding- 
many of its dead withered leaves until nearly spring and in 



OAKS. 



217 




Plate 31. Quercus alba. White Oak. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Portion of a staminate catkin, 
enlarged. 3. Staminate tlower, enlarged. 4. Cluster of pistillate flowers, en- 
larged. 5. Cross section of ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural 
size. 7. Cup. one-half natural size. S. Longitudinal section of acorn, one-half 
natural size. 9. A germinated acorn, one-half natural size. 

this respect it differs from the Bur Oak to which it is closely 
allied but which sheds all its leaves in autumn. 

Distribution. — From southern Maine westward through 
Ontario to southern and central Minnesota and eastern Kan- 
sas, south to Florida and Texas. In Minnesota frequent in 
the southeastern and central parts of the state. 

Propagation. — The acorns of the White Oak naturally 
start into growth in the first of autumn and often form roots 



218 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

several inches long by the time the ground freezes. In con- 
sequence of this there is but a short time in which to sow them 
and this should be done as soon as they can be gathered in 
autumn or if planted later great pains must be taken not to 
break the radicle which will probably have pushed out. The 
seeds require only ordinary care to secure a good stand if 
properly managed. 

Properties of wood, — Strong, very heavy, hard, tough, close 
grained, durable in contact with soil although liable to check 
unless carefully seasoned: color light brown wath thin light 
brown sapwood. Specific gravity 0.747; w^eight of a cubic 
foot 46.35 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Oak is highly esteemed as an ornamen- 
tal tree on account of its sturdiness, longevity and magnifi- 
cent spreading form, although it is seldom planted on account 
of its slow growth: one of our hardiest trees, although it w^ill 
not endure as much drouth as the Bur Oak or White Elm. 
The wood is of great value on account of its adaptability to 
many purposes where a tough, strong, close grained wood is 
needed. It is largely used in ship building, in construction, 
cooperage ( large quantities being exported to Europe in the 
form of staves), in the manufacture of agricultural imple- 
ments, carriages and baskets, for the interior finishing of 
houses, in cabinet making and for raihvay ties, fence posts 
and fuel. 

duercus macrocarpa. Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. 
Bur White Oak. 

Leaves large, ovate or oblong, lyrate-pinnatifid or deeply 
sinuate-lobed or parted, the lobes sparingly toothed or entire, 
irregular, downy or pale beneath and bright green above, turn- 
ing to a dull yellow before falling in autumn. Cup (cupule) 
deep, thick, woody, conspicuously imbricated with hard, thick 
pointed scales, the upper ones generally awned so as to make 
a mossy, fringed border, but this is occasionally lacking. 
Acorns ovoid, almost spherical, half or wholly enclosed by 
the cup. Bark rougher and darker colored than that of the 
White Oak. A large tree varying greatly in form, sometimes 
growing 100 feet high and 6 or 7 feet through the trunk, but in 
this section seldom over 70 feet high and 3 feet through. 



OAKS. 



219 




Plate 32. Quercus macrocarpa. Bur Oak. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size, 2, Staminate flower, enlarged. 
3. Pistillate inflorescense, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 

Distribution. — From New Bruaswick and Nova Scotia 
westward to Manitoba, Montana and Kansas and southwest- 
ward to Tennessee, Indian Territory and Texas. In Minne- 
sota common or abundant in all except the extreme north- 
eastern part. 

Propagation. — Very easily grown from seeds planted in 
autumn. The seedlings in good prairie soil attain a height 
of about 4 feet in five years. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, rather brittle, coarse 
grained and very durable in contact with the soil; color, rich 



220 



TREES OF MINNEvSOTA, 




Plate 33. Quercus rubra. Red Oak. 

1. Flowering branch showing immature fruit of one years growth, one-half 
natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged. 3. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. 
Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half 
natural size. 6. Cup, one-half natural size. 7. Mature leaf, one-half natural 
size. 



OAKS. 221 

brown with much lighter brown sapwood. Specific gravity 
0.7453; weight of a cubic foot 46.45 pounds. 

Uses, — The Bur Oak is the most magnificent, most durable 
and longest lived tree for planting throughout this whole 
section. It is also one of the most valuable timber trees of 
North America, although its wood is rather coarser grained 
and inferior in strength to that of the White Oak with which 
it is commercially confounded. 

Quercus rubra. Red Oak. 

Leaves oblong-obovate to oblong, moderately sometimes 
deeply pinnatifid with rounded sinuses, 7 to 9 narrow lobes, 
these and the teeth being bristle pointed; mature leaves rather 
thin, turning dark red after frost in autumn. Cup saucer- 
shaped or flat with a narrow raised border of fine scales, ses- 
sile or on a very short stalk, very much shorter than the 
acorn which is oblong-ovoid or turgid-ovoid, 1 inch or less in 
length, with a bitter kernel. Two years are required to ripen 
the nut which is consequently found on the old wood below 
the leaves of the season. Bark smoother than that of most 
oaks. A tree 70 to 80 or more feet high with a trunk 3 or 4 
feet in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia to the divide west of 
Lake Superior and to central Kansas, south to Georgia and 
Tennessee. In Minnesota found along the Mississippi River 
and occasionally in other parts, but is not very common any- 
where in the state. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from fall sown seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained 
and liable to check badly in drying. Specific gravity 0.6621; 
weight of a cubic foot, 41.25 pounds. 

Uses. — The Red Oak has been used to a limited extent in 
this country and Europe as an ornamental tree for which its 
stately form, vigorous growth, and fine autumn coloring make 
it especially desirable. No oak of the northern states is more 
easily transplanted. The wood which in trade is not distin- 
guished from that of the Scarlet Oak, is used for interior 
finishinDf, furniture and in construction and has a beautiful 
grain for finishing. It is often used for fuel, but is generally 



222 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 34. Quercus coccinea. Scarlet Oak. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Pistillate flower cluster, en- 
larged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Fruit- 
ing branch, one-half natural size. t>. Acorn, one-half natural size. 



OAKS. 223 

though not universally considered much inferior to the White 
Oak for this purpose. 

Quercus coccinea. Scarlet Oak. Black Oak. 

Leaves oblong or obovate, deeply pinnatifid with broad 
rounded sinuses and slender lobes divergent and divided at 
the apex into several teeth which are bristle-pointed. When 
the leaves unfold they are bright red and covered with 
pubescence, but towards maturity they become shining green 
and generally glabrous above, the lower side in this section 
often. furnished with tufts of hair in the axils of the veins. 
The leaves turn a brilliant red or scarlet in autumn, remain 
on the trees in this section all winter and fall in the spring. 
The buds are often slightly pubescent and are smaller and 
very different from the large tomentose buds of Quercus velu- 
tina. The fruit which ripens in the autumn of the second year 
is sessile or on a stalk which is sometimes an inch long; it is 
oval or globular ovoid with a bitter kernel. A common and 
often large tree in this section, where it is generally termed 
Black Oak and is found on .gravelly ridges and sandy land 
interspersed with Bur and Red Oak. 

Distribution, — From Maine to the District of Columbia 
and west to Minnesota and Nebraska. 

Propagation. — By fall-sown seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained, 
light or reddish brown with thick darker colored sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.7095; weight of a cubic foot 42.20 pounds. 

Uses. — The Scarlet Oak is not planted to so great an 
extent as the Red Oak for ornamental purposes but is fully as 
desirable because of its beautiful scarlet autumn coloring 
and rapid growth. The wood is largely used in the manufac- 
ture of furniture, for interior finishing and for fuel and is not 
distinguished commercially from that of Red Oak. 



224 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Elm. EaiTTilv. 

*^ 

Genus TJLMXJS. 

Leaves simple, alternate, 2-ranked, short petioled, straight 
veined, usually rather rough. Flowers appear before the 
leaves in our species; perfect or rarely polygamous. apetalous? 
greenish, in lateral clusters; calyx 4 to 9 lobed; stamens 4 to 
9 with long slender filaments; ovary superior, 1-celled or 
rarely 2-celled, flattened: styles 2, short and diverging. Fruit 
a samara with a broad membranous margin, 1-celled, 1-seeded, 
ripens in early summer; seed all embryo. A genus of about 
fifteen widely- distributed species which are mostly large de- 
ciduous trees, three of which occur in our range. Most of the 
Elms produce hard tough wood that is often difficult to split. 
The European species have given rise to many varieties differ- 
ing from the parent species in many ways but chiefly in habit 
of growth and color of foliage. A form of the European 
Scotch Elm (U. 'Montana) with pendulous habit know^n in 
nurseries as Camperdoicn Weeping Elm, has done very well in 
a somewhat protected location at the Minnesota Experiment 
Station and bids fair to make a very ornamental specimen. 
The stock on which it is worked (probably U. campestris) 
however has sunscalded. In China a white mucilaginous 
meal is made from the inner bark of the Elm and is used as 
food by the mountaineers of the northern provinces and in 
the composition of incense sticks. The fruit is employed in 
medicine and the bark and young- fruits are eaten in periods 
of severe famine. 

Propagation. — The species are grown from seeds and the 
varieties by layers, budding, and grafting. With the ex- 
ception of the Slippery Elm (q. v.) the seeds should be sown 
as soon as gathered. 

Ulmus americana. White Elm. American Elm. 
Water Elm. 

Leaves 3 to 4 inches long, obovate-oblong to oval, usual- 
ly smooth on the upper and soft and velvety on the lower sur- 



ELMS. 



225 




Plate 35. Ulmus americana. White Elm. 
1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Flower, enlarged. ?. Longi- 
tudinal section of flower, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, 
enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 0. Longitudinal section of 
fruit, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of seed, natural size. 8. Embryo, 
enlarged. 9. Portion of summer branch, one-half natural size. 10. Portion of 
winter branch, one-half natural size. 

face, coarsely and doubly serrate, taper-pointed, turning to a 
bright yellow before falling. Branches small, slender, as- 
cending, at length spreading and pendulous; twigs and buds 
smooth, not corky. Flowers appear in April, in dense 
clusters with slender drooping pedicels. Fruit ripe in May, 
smooth except the edges which are hairy with incurved sharp 
points at the apex. A large common tree sometimes 120 feet 
high and 6 feet or more in diameter. This tree varies greatly 



226 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

in habit; some specimens may be quite upright in growth 
while others are very pendulous. One having the drooping 
habit that was found in Illinois, is now offered by nurserymen. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland and along the northern 
shores of Lake Superior to tlie eastern base of Rocky 
Mountains, south to Florida and Texas and west in the 
United States to the Black Hills of Dakota and western 
Xansas. In Minnesota common throughout the Jtate. 

PropaQation. — Described under genus Ulmus. The seeds 
<?an often be swept up on roadways and pavements in large 
quantities. / 

Properties of wood. — Vei^ tough in young trees, light and 
moderately strong in old, difficult to split and rather coarse 
grained; color light brown with lighter colored sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.6506; weight of a cubic foot 40.55 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Elm has always been the favorite shade 
:and ornamental tree in the northern states and is the best 
street and park tree for general planting in this section. It 
is also one of the hardiest trees for prairie planting and will 
perhaps withstand as great extremes of temperature 
^nd moisture as any of our shade trees. It is a rapid and 
often straggling grower and sJiould have a little attention in 
the way of pruning when young to keep it in its best form. 
The wood is largely used in the manufacture of agricultural 
implements, for hubs of wagon wheels, for saddle trees, for 
flooring and in cooperage. The bark was used by the Indians 
when they could not procure birch bark in making their 
-canoes and houses. In soine parts of this country the tough 
inner bark was formerly twisted into ropes. 

TJlmus racemosa. Cork Elm. Rock Elm. 

Leaves ovate-oblong or obovate, taper-pointed, smooth 
above, pubescent beneath, resembling those of the White Elm 
Ijut less sharply serrate. Twigs and bud scales pubescent; 
TDranches generally with corky ridges or wings. Flowers in 
April, in open loose racemes with slender pedicels not in 
clusters. Fruit ripe in May, an ovate elliptical samara about 
^ of an inch long, pubescent, with margins thickly fringed, 
much like the fruit of the White Elm, but somewhat larger. 
Occasionally a tree 80 to 100 feet high and 3 feet in diameter. 



ELMS. 



227 




Plate 36. Ulmus racemosa. Cork Elm. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Cluster of flowers subtendecf 
by bud scale, enlarged. 3. Flower, enlarged, 4. Longitudinal section of flower,, 
enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longitudinal section 
of fruit, two-thirds natural size. 7. Summer branch, one-half natural size. 



228 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 37. Ulmus pubescens. Slippery Elm. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Flower, enlarged. 8. Stamen, 
enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section 
of pistil, enlarged. O. Cross section of ovary, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 9. 
Seed, enlarged. 10. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 11. Embryo, en- 
larged. 12. A young branch with unfolding leaves, showing accrescent bud- 
scales and stipules, one-half natural size. 13. Summer branch, one-half natural 
size. 14. Winter branch, showing flower buds beginning to enlarge, one-half 
natural size. 

Distribution. — From Quebec, Ontario, Vermont and north- 
ern New York west to Minnesota and south to Missouri and 
Tennessee. 

In Minnesota frequent in the eastern part and extending into 
the Minnesota Valley west at least to Montevideo, Chippewa 
County. 

Propagation. — Described under genus Ulmus. 



ELMS. 229 

Properties of icood. — Heavy, hard, very strong and tough, 
close grained, susceptible of receiving a high polish, very 
difficult to split. It is light brown with yellowish or greenish 
white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7265; weight of a cubic 
foot 45.63 pounds. 

Uses. — As an ornamental tree the Cork Elm is occasionally 
used in place of the White Elm and though a slower grower 
its great hardiness and sturdy form make it very desirable 
for park and street planting. It should be used more fre- 
quently than at present. The wood having so many valuable 
qualities is much sought for and its extinction seems possible. 
It is largely used in the manufacture of large agricultural 
implements, like plows and threshing and mowing machines, 
for beams of stump pullers, bridge timbers, piles, wagon 
hubs, rims of bicycle wheels and ax handles. For the latter 
purpose it is superior to hickory. In fact it is superior to 
most other woods wherever great strength, toug-hness, solidi- 
ty, flexibility and durability are required. 

Ulmus pubescens ( JJ. fulva. ) Slippery Elm. Red 
Elm. Moose Elm. 

Leaves ovate-oblong, doubly serrate, very rough above 
and slightly rough or soft downy beneath, often 4 to 6 inches 
long, taper-pointed, turning to a dull yellow before falling, 
fragrant while drying. Buds before expansion soft, downy, 
large: branchlets downy. Flowers in April, borne on short 
pedicels. Fruit in May or June, nearly circular, about f 
inches long, only slightly if at all downy. Tree of medium 
size, 40 to 60 feet high with a trunk occasionally 2 feet in 
diameter. 

Distribution. — From Ontario west to North Dakota and 
south to Florida and Texas; less common than the White Elm. 
In Minnesota frequent throughout the state except far north- 
ward. 

Propagation. — By seeds kept stratified until the spring fol- 
lowing the period of ripening. Unlike the other Elms, the 
seeds will not grow the same season that they mature. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, very close 
grained, durable in contact with the soil, splits as freely and 
easily as that of young chestnut. It is dark brown with thin 



230 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

light colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6956; weight of a» 
cubic foot 43.35 pounds. 

Uses, — In cultivation the Slippery Elm is a shapely, fast^ 
growing tree, well adapted to this section: not of as pretty a. 
form nor as hardy in dry locations as the White or Rock Elm. 
but more valuable in home timber lots. When planted as a. 
street tree, the bark is likely to be stripped olf by boys. 
The trees when planted closely together grow straight and tall 
and make excellent poles for farm use. When used for posts^ 
they should be cut in summer and be peeled and dried before: 
setting. When this is done they will last a long time. The> 
wood is used for sleigh runners, the running gear of carriages, 
hubs of wheels, and in the manufacture of agricultural imple- 
ments. It is tough when boiled or steamed, hence is one of 
the best woods for ribs of canoes and skiffs. The thick: 
fragrant inner bark is soft, mucilaginous and slightly nutriti- 
ous. It has been known to support .life in case of scarcity of 
food. It is reported that during the last war with Great 
Britain the soldiers on the Canadian frontier found it a grate- 
ful and nutritious food for their horses in times of scarcity of 
forage. It is used in medicines for affections of the throat 
and lungs and for other troubles. 

Genus CELTIS. 

Leaves alternate, simple, short petioled. Flowers monoe- 
ciously polygamous, appearing in the axils of the leaves of 
the season; the staminate in little clusters or racemes; the 
perfect flowers solitary or in pairs, peduncled; styles 2. Fruit. 
a globular drupe; embryo curved, nearly enclosing a little 
gelatinous albumen. Only one species in the northern states, 
of interest to us here. 

Celtis occidentalis. Hackberry. Sugarberry. Net- 
tle Tree. 

Leaves quite various but usually ovate to ovate- 
lancelate, sharply and coarsely serrate or sparingly so^ 
taper-pointed, more or less rough above and unusually soft 
pubescent beneath, at least when young. Flowers appear in 
April and May, solitary, small, white on rather long pedun- 
cles. Fruit a small, solitary, round, sweet edible drupe^. 



HACKBERRY. 



231 




Plate 38. Celds occidentalis. Hackberry. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower before 
straightening of filaments, enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, expanded, enlarged. 
4. Perfect flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of perfect flower, enlarged. 
<). Diagram of flower. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudi- 
nal section of fruit, natural size. 9. Transverse section of fruit, natural size. 
10. Winter twig, one-half naturahsize. 

« 

reddish or yellowish turning a dark purple when fully matured, 
remaining on tree into the winter; peduncle twice the length 
of the petioles. Generally a small but sometimes a large tree 
over 100 feet high and 2 or 3 feet in diameter. The tree 
resembles the White Elm, but the branches come out more at 
right angles and the bark is rougher and more closely divided 
than that of the White Elm. 

Distribution — Prom Ontario west to Lake of the Woods, 
Dakota, Colorado and Arkansas and south to Georgia and 



232 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

eastern Texas. In Minnesota frequent in the southern half 
of the state and not uncommon in the Valley of the Red River 
even near the extreme northern limit of the state. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds which should be 
sown as soon as ripe or stratified over winter and sown in the 
spring. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, rather soft, not strong, 
coarse grained, dark or light brown with thick light colored 
often yellowish sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7287: weight of 
a cubic foot 45.41 pounds. 

Uses. — The Hackberry is of rapid growth and is one of 
the best trees for general park, lawn and prairie plantings 
here. No deciduous tree presents a more graceful appearance 
in winter when the finely divided spray of the limbs and the 
small size of the young growth make it very attractive. In 
this section it is preferred to the White Elm for a shade tree 
by some experienced planters. It endures drouth well but is 
probably not as hardy in this way as the White Elm. It is- 
also less liable to split in the crotches. The wood to some 
extent is used to take the place of elm. 

]NXiilberry Family. 

The largest genus of this family is Ficus, which contains 
over 600 knowm species including the cultivated fig (Ficus 
carica) and the Indiarubber Tree {Ficus elastica). The follow- 
ing genus contains about 10 species, natives of the northern 
hemisphere. . 

Genus MORTIS. 

Tj'ees or shrubs with milky sap and alternate, dentate and 
often lobed leaves. Flowers monoecious or dioecious (rarely 
polygamus ) in axillary catkin-like spikes, the pistillate 
spikes ripening into succulent aggregated fruits. Calyx 4- 
parted, in the pistillate flower becoming fleshy; stamens 4; 
pistils 1: stigma 2. 



MULBERRIES. 233 

Morus rubra. Red Mulberry. 

Leaves ovate or hearly orbicular in outline, acute or 
taper-pointed occasionally deeply lobed. glabrous above, per- 
sistently pubescent beneath or when young almost tomentose. 
JPlowers appear with the unfolding of the leaves. The fruit 
which is at tirst bright red, when fully grown becomes dark 
purple or nearly black and when fully ripe is sweet, juicy and 
pleasant to the taste. It ripens in summer and is from 1 to 
li inches long. South, it forms a large tree with brown rough 
bark, but within our range it is a small tree or mere shrub. 

Distribution. — Vermont to Ontario, Michigan, and South 
Dakota and south to Florida and Texas. In Minnesota 
it reaches its northern limit in the southern part of the state. 

Propagation. — By seeds or by cuttings. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, ratlier tough, 
•ooarse grained and very durable in contact wiih the soil. 
Specific gravity 0.5898; weight of a cubic foot 36.75 pounds. 

Uses. — The Red Mulberry is sometimes used in the middle 
a,nd southern states as an ornamental tree where it forms a 
large spreading tree forty feet high. It well deserves a place 
on lawns or in parks but is not very hardy in Minnesota. 
The wood is valued for fence posts and is used in cooperage; 
in the southern states it is often used in boat-building. The 
inner bark is fibrous and was used by the Indians of ihe 
southern states for making a. coarse cloth; in early days this 
fibre was used for cordage. The leaves have been largely ex- 
perimented with as food for silk w^orms but they are not so 
good for this purpose as those of the White Mulberry {3forus 
•alba). 

Morus alba tartarica. Russian Mulberry. 

Leaves thin, smooth, glabrous and somewhat shining on 
"both sides, heart-shaped, ovate or orbicular, generally 
deeply lobed and dentate; the same plant will often have 
leaves of several forms. Flowers appear with the leaves, 
^generally dioecious or monoecious but rarely polygamous. 
The fruit ripens early in July and is white or purplish in 
<3olor and varies from f to H inches in length. As commonly 
seen it is a low-growing very bushy-topped small tree with 
lififht gray bark and spreading branches. 



234 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 39. Morus alba tartarica. Russian Mulberry. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower-cluster, en- 
larged. 4. Pistillate flower cluster, natural size. 5. Staminate flower, enlarged. 
6. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal section of pistil, enlarged. 8. 
Full grown lobed leaf, one-half natural size. 



MULBERRIES. 235 

Distribution. — Native of central Asia. 

Propagation. — By seeds, cuttings, layers or graftage. 
The seeds, if sown as soon as gathered, will make plants about 
one foot high the first season. 

J Properties of wood. — Probably much the same as those of 
the Red Mulberry. 

Uses. — The Russian Mulberry was introduced into the 
western states by the Russian Mennonites, who esteem it very 
highly for its many good qualities, among which is the ease 
^ith which it is propagated, its rapid growth, the value of the 
leaves as food for silk worms, its fruit, ornamental appear- 
ance and the durability of the wood in contact with the soil. 
It is not perfectly hardy in this section but generally holds 
on well as far north as St. Paul, although it generally kills 
l)ack considerably for the first few years after planting. 
While it can be grown in tree form it is much better adapted 
to being grown in this section in the form of a windbreak. 
It bears pruning well and makes a very pretty hedge but is 
not adapted to turning cattle as it is unarmed. The fruit is 
insipid and generally small, but in almost every large lot of 
seedlings a few specimens will be found producing fruit of 
.good size and fair quality. While the fruit is not marketable 
it is often used domestically and also furnishes a large amount 
of food for birds just when strawberries and raspberries are 
Tipening and is preferred by them to the more acid berries, 
hence affords some protection to these more important crops. 
•Objections to its use in ornamental planting are its suscepti- 
bility to injury by late spring frosts, which blacken the new 
growth and the early falling of the leaves in autumn. While 
its leaves are well adapted to feeding the silk-worm and have 
been successfully used for this purpose in this section in a 
small way, yet the industry has not become profitable. 

Varieties. — A variety known as Teas Weeding Mulherii/ has 
been partially tried at the Minnesota Experiment Station but 
lias not proved sufficiently hardy for this section. 



236 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Rose Family. 

A larg-e family of trees, shrubs and herbs including- many 
of our cultivated fruits and ornamental plants. 

Genus PYRUS. 

Leaves simple or pinnately compound, flowers white or 
rose colored, in corymbs, cymes, or clusters, perfect, regular; 
stamens numerous; styles 5, (sometimes 2 or 3); carpels of 
the same number, 2-seeded. Seeds in cells that are made up 
of horny, parchment-like thin walls. Fruit a pome. 

Pyrus ioensis. Wild Crab. Western Crab. 

Leaves simple, oblong or obovate-oval, variously notched 
and toothed; the lower surface as well as the leaf stalks, short 
pedicels, and young growth, densely white pubescent. Flowers 
rose-colored, frasfrant, much like those of Pyrus coronaria 
with which this species was formerly classed and is now some- 
time referred to as a variety. Fruit round, somewhat flat- 
tened, dull green with small light dots, hard, bitter, keeps 
through the winter. A small tree. 

Distribution. — Minnesota and Wisconsin, south to Ken- 
tucky and Indian Territory. 

Propagation. — By seeds or by graftage. It does not form 
a durable union with Pyrus malus although such unions may 
last several years. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, close grained, not hard nor 
strong; brown to light red in color w^ith thick yellow sapwood. 
Speciflc gravity 0.7048; weight of a cubic foot 43.92 pounds. 

Uses. — The Wild Crab with its large fragrant flowers 
forms a very pretty, small ornamental tree. The fruit is 
made into preserves and cider. When growing in its natural 
state, the tree is hardy and is seldom injured by fire-blight 
but seems to be very much subject to this disease when culti- 
vated, especially after it has been transplanted. 



WILD CRAB. 



237 




Plate 40. Pyrus ioensis. Wild Crab. 



1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of flower 
with petals removed, natural size. 8. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. 
Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 5. Summer branch, one-half 
natural size. 



238 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Pyrus americana. American Mountain Ash.. 

Leaves odd-pinnate; leaflets 11 to 17, lanceolate, taper- 
pointed, bright green above, generally paler beneath. Flow- 
ers in large compound leafy cymes appearing in May or June. 
Fruit usually 3-celled, globose or slightly pear-shaped, bright 
red with thin flesh, one-fourth inch in diameter, ripens in late 
autumn and remains on the tree all winter unless eaten by 
birds. A small tree with smooth bark seldom reaching a 
lieight of 30 feet and often a mere shrub. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland to Manitoba and south- 
wards through the more elevated portions of northeastern 
United States and the region of the Great Lakes. It reaches 
its greatest size north of Lake Superior and Lake Huron. In 
Minnesota common throusfh the northern part of the state 
extending south to Pine and Mille Lacs counties. 

Propagation. — The species is grown from seeds and the 
varieties by budding and grafting. The seeds may be gath- 
ered during the autumn, stratified over winter and sown in 
the spring, but seeds thus treated will seldom start until the 
second season. A better way is to put the seeds ten inches 
deep in a hole and cover with three inches of sand in the 
autumn. They should remain in such a place until a year 
from the following spring when the berries will be thoroughly 
rotted and the seeds may be sifted out from the pulp and sown. 
Thus treated, they come up the season of planting. 

Properties of wood. — Soft, light and weak, pale brown with 
lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5451; weight of 
a cubic foot 33.97 pounds. 

Uses. — The American Mountain Ash is used as an orna- 
mental tree on account of its abundant bright colored fruit 
but is not so pretty in this respect as the European or Elder- 
leaf Mountain Ash. The trunk of the tree is liable to sun- 
scald and when planted in exposed places it should be en- 
couraged to send up sprouts from the roots and from the 
lower parts of the trunk. Treated in this way it forms a large 
shrub of great value from an ornamental point of view and is 
very hardy even in exceedingly severe locations. The fruit is 
astringent. It is used in some homeopathic and domestic 
remedies. 



MOUNTAIN ASHES. 



239 




Plate 41. Pvrus sambucifolia, Blderleaf Mountain Ash. 



1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of flower, 
enlarged. 3. Transverse sections of ovary, enlarged. 4. Cluster of fruit, one- 
half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit. 6. Cross section of fruit. 
7. Longitudinal section of seed. 8. Embryo, magnified. 9. Winter buds, one- 
half natural size. 



240 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Pryus sambucifolia. Elderleaf Mountain Ash. 

Leaves odd-pinnate; leaflets 7 to 15 oblonof-ovate, mostly 
obtuse. Flowers appear in July in small dense pubescent 
cymes. The fruit is globose, bright scarlet and sometimes 
nearly a half inch in diameter. It is produced in dense red- 
branched clusters and remains on the tree into the winter. A 
small tree that is often mistaken for Pyrus americana from 
which it is best distinguished by its smaller cymes, its larger 
and later flowers and its more obtuse and broader leaflets. 

Jhstrihution. — It is found growing from southern Green- 
land to Labrador and norbheim New England along the 
northern shores of the Great Lakes to Little Slave Lake 
through the Rocky Mountains to Alaska and northeastern 
Asia. In Minnesota it is common northward extending south 
to Lake Itasca and rarely found farther south. 

P rojjag at ion. -S?ime as recommended for American 
Mountain Ash. 

Properties of wood. — Practically the same as American 
Mountain Ash. 

Uses. — The large and brilliant fruit of the Elderleaf 
Mountain Ash makes it the handsomest of all Mountain Ashes 
and as it is very hardy it is a desirable lawn tree. Like all 
the Mountain Ashes it is likely to sunscald on the trunk when 
grown singly and the trunk left unprotected and will do best 
if several sprouts are encouraged to grow from the trunk as 
recommended for the American Mountain Ash. 

Pyrus aucuparia. European Mountain Ash. 

Leaves odd-pinnate, softer and more graceful than those 
of Pyrus americana; leaflets 13 to 15, ovate, generally blunt 
pointed, lower surfaces and stalks downy, at length glabrous. 
Flowers in May or June followed by large red berries (i inch 
in diameter) w^hich hold on into the winter. There are varie- 
ties with yellow and orange fruit. Tree of fair size, often 30 
feet high, much more graceful than the American Mountain 
Ash. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. 

Propagation and properties of icood. — About the same as 
the American Mountain Ash. 

Uses. — The European Mountain Ash is a good, small 



MOUNTAIN ASHES. 



241 




ornamental tree of 
graceful habit, conspic- 
uous for its numerous 
large clusters of white 
flowers in May or June 
and for its bright red 
and orange fruit in aut- 
umn and winter. It 
is about as hardy as the 
American MountainAsh 
.fT^lN- ^^ — • but of more rapid 

Figure 45. Weeping Mountain Ash. growth. It should be 

treated in the same way. 

Varieties. — There are several varieties varying in habit 
of growth and color of fruit. The following is the most com- 
monly planted: — 

Pyrus aucuparia pendula. Weeping Mountain Ash. 

A form w^ith pendulous, graceful habit. 
It grows freely, is hardy and is interesting 
for variety. It is largely used as a lawn 
curiosity. Propagated by grafting onto the 
American or European Mountain Ash. 

Pyrus hybrida. 

Oakleaf Mountain Ash. 

Leaves 5 to 6 inches long, lyrate pinna- 
tifid, often pinnate at the base, irregularly 
and sharply serrate, dark green and glab- 
rous above, pale and densely pubescent be- 
neath. Flowers white in large conspicuous 
clusters. Propagated by grafting onto the 
European or American species. This Moun- 
tain Ash forms a very pretty lawn or park 
tree of upright pyramidal habit, attaining a 
height of 20 or 30 feet. In hardiness it ranks 
with the .European Mountain Ash. It is 
said to be a hybrid between Pyrus aria 
{Sweet Beam Tree) and Pyrus aucuparia. 




Leaf of 
Oakieaf M ountain 



Fig. 46. 



Ash, 
size. 



natural 



242 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus AMELANCHIER. 

A small ^enus of trees and shrubs with alternate simple 
leaves, racemose white flowers and edible fruit. 

Amelanchier canadensis. Juneberry. Service-tree. 

Leaves ovate or oval, pointed, finely serrate, reddish 
brown with scattered white hairs when young becoming dark 
green above and paler beneath at maturity; stipules early de- 
ciduous. Flowers appear after the leaves in spreading or 
drooping racemes; petals thin, pure white, about one-half 
inch long; calyx much shorter than petals. Fruit i to i inch 
in diameter; ripens in early summer, dark purple when fully 
ripe, sweet and edible. A tree sometimes reaching a height 
of 50 feet but seldom over 25 feet and often a mere shrub. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland w^estward along the 
northern shores of the Great Lakes to eastern Nebraska and. 
south to Florida and Louisiana. 

Fropagati07i. — The species by seeds and the varieties by 
suckers, layers and cuttings. 

Properties of ivood. — Heavy, very hard, close-grained, sus- 
ceptible of a good polish; dark brown in color with thick 
lighter-colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7838; weight of a 
cubic foot 48.85 poundss. 

Jfses. — The profusion of white flowers produced by the 
Juneberry in early spring makes it a pretty ornamental tree 
or shrub at that time of the year. It may be planted to supply 
food for the birds or to produce fruit for home use. The wood 
is occasionally used for handles of tools or other small im- 
plements. 

Varieties. — Amelanchier canadensis varies considerably in 
the form of the leaves, size of flowers and fruit and in habit 
of growth. The f ollow^ing is the most distinct of these varieties . 

Amelanchier canadensis obovalis. Dwarf Juneberry. 
Suscutan-berry. 

Leaves oblong or broadly elliptical, acute or rounded at 
the apex, remotely serrate or nearly entire below the middle, 
coated at first on the lower surface with thick white tomentum. 
Flowers smaller than those of the species. A small bush or tree 
common in Quebec, Ontario and the northeastern states, and 



JUNEBERRIES. 243 

in localities westward to the Mackenzie River, North Dakota, 
Minnesota and Missouri. A dwarf form of this with large 
fruit is cultivated to some extent through the northern states. 
The Indians of Minnesota and Dakota gather the berries in 
rather large quantities and sell small quantities in some of 
the remote towns. 

Amelanchier alnifolia. Service-berry. 

Leaves broadly ovate, obtuse or rarely acute, coarsely 
■dentate or serrate towards the apex. Flowers, in erect rather 
dense racemes. Fruit, dark blue or almost black, sweet and 
juicy. A shrub or small tree which in the eastern limits of its 
range is hardly distinguishable from some of the broad leaved 
iorms of Amelanchier canadensis. 

Distribution. — From the valley of the Yukon River south 
through the coast ranges to southern California and east to 
Michigan and Nebraska. 

Projyagation. — By Seeds and suckers. 

Properties of wood. — Very heavy, hard and close grained, 
light brown. Specific gravity 0.8262; weight of a cubic foot 
51.55 pounds. 

Uses. — The fruit as found in the wild state is gathered by 
the Indians and used by them for food. 

Genus CRATAEGUS. 

Leaves alternats, simple, lobed or pinnatifid. Flowers 
mostly in terminal corymbs, regular, perfect, white or rarely 
rose colored. Fruit a fleshy, drupe-like pome containing 1 to 
5 hard one-seeded carpels and having on its summit the per- 
sistent calyx lobes. Small trees or shrubs armed with thorns. 
It is very difficult to identify accurately the species of this 
genus on account of their varying and conflicting charac- 
teristics. 

Propagation. — The fruit should be stratified over winter 
l)efore sowing the seeds, which seldom germinate until the 
second year. 

Crataegns tomentosa. Black Thorn. Black Haw. 
Leaves ovate, to ovate-oblong, sharply cut or toothed, 
contracted into margined petioles, pubescent on the lower sur- 



244 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 42. Crataegus tomentosa. Black Thorn. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of 
flower, natural size. 8. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 5. Cross sec- 
tion of fruit, natural size. 6. Part of fruit showing seed, natural size. 7. 
Branchlet showing winter buds, one-half natural size. 8. Summer shoot showing 
stipules, one-half natural size. 

face. Flowers i inch broad, produced in broad, leafy, pubes- 
cent, slender-branched cymes appearing in June. Fruit pear- 
shaped but occasionally globose, dull red, half an inch in 
diameter and erect on the branches. A small tree occasion- 
ally 15 feet high with a straight trunk and spreading branches 
making a flat-topped tree or often a shrub with many 
straggling stems. 

Distrihuiion. — From New York to Minnesota, south to 
Georgia and Texas: not known to be common in many 



WILD THORNS. 245 

localities. In Minnesota common or frequent throughout the 
state in thickets and along wooded banks of streams. 

Propagation. — Described under genus. 

Froperties of wood. — Very heavy, hard and close grained; 
reddish brown with thick, lighter colored sapwood. Specific 
gravity 0.7585; weight of a cubic foot 47.57 pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Thorn is exceedingly hardy, is used as 
an ornamental tree or shrub and is much admired for its 
clean, pretty habit, its brilliant foliage in autumn and its 
bright fruit which remains on the branches all winter. 

Crataegus crus-galli. Cockspur Thorn. 

Leaves wedge-obovate. or oblanceolate, serrate, firm, deep 
green, glossy above, dull beneath; petiole short. Flowers 
appear in June. Thorns very long and sharp. Fruit bright 
red, globose or rarely pear-shaped. A small tree 20 or more 
feet high. 

Distribution. — From the St. Lawrence river southward to 
Florida and west to Missouri and Texas. In Minnesota rare 
or doubtful. 

Froperties of wood. — About the same as C. tomentosa. 

Uses. — The Cockspur Thorn is valuable for hedges since 
it bears close pruning well, is very hardy and has large 
thorns. It is a most beautiful and ornamental tree having a 
good habit, good healthy foliage, brilliant autumn color to 
its foliage, and persistent red fruit. 

Crataegus coccinea. White Thorn. Scarlet Haw. 

Leaves thin, roundish ovate, sharply cut-toothed or lobed 
on slender petioles. Flowers appear when the leaves are 
nearly grown. Fruit ripens in September or October and 
generally hangs on the branches until after the leaves have 
fallen; glabrous, slightly elongated, bright scarlet, i to i 
inch in diameter, hardly edible. A bushy branched tree 
rarely 20 feet in height, sometimes with a short trunk and 
short spreading branches which form a narrow head but more 
often a shrub. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland w^estward to Manitoba 
and Nebraska, and southward to northern Florida and 
eastern Texas. In Minnesota frequent and occasionally com- 



246 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

mon throughout most of the state on rocky banks or hillsides. 

Fropagation. — Described under genus. 

Fropeiiies of wood. — The heaviest Minnesota wood. Specific 
gravity, 0.8618. Otherwise about the same as C. tomentosa. 

Uses. — The White Thorn is used for similar purposes in 
ornamental planting as the others mentioned but is not so 
desirable. 

Genus PRUNUS. 

Shrubs or trees with alternate, simple leaves. Flowers 
with calyx that is deciduous after flowering: a single pistil 
with a superior ovary containing a pair of ovules and becom- 
ing a single drupe or stone fruit. This genus comprises some 
of our most valued fruits, such as the Plum, Peach, Cherry, 
Apricot and Nectarine and ornamental plants such as the 
Double Flowering Almond; all the species here referred to are 
ornamental when in flower. 

This genus seems to divide more or less into two groups 
which are distins^uished by the form of inflorescence, one 
group bearing its flowers in racemes and the other in umbels. 
It is of interest to notice that it is difficult if not quite impos- 
sible to graft or bud trees of the different groups together 
while within each group trees of the different species can be 
grafted quite readily. 

Prunus americana. Wild Plum. 

Leaves oval or slightly obovate. Flowers appear when 
the leaves are about one-half unfolded. Fruit large, colored 
with red and yellow often with a heavy bloom; srenerally 
ascerb but frequently good: the parent of our cultivated sorts 
such as Kollingstone, Wolf, Forest Garden, Desoto, Cheney 
and others; ripens August to September. A small thorny 
tree seldom over twenty feet high and generally found grow- 
ing in thickets. A form of this that flowers very early and 
has fruit with a thin pit is considered a variety or perhaps a 
separate species (P. nigra.) The Aitkin plum comes under 
this head. 

Distribution. — It is found from New York and New Jersey 
to Nebraska and the upper Missouri Valley south to northern 



WILD PLUM. 247 

Mexico and western Florida. In Minnesota, throughout the 
state in thickets along- banks of streams. 

Propagation. — Grown from the seeds which should not be 
allowed to become hard and dry but should be stratified if 
they are expected to g-row the following- spring. If planted in 
the autumn as soon as separated from the pulp about two- 
thirds of the seeds will grow the following spring and the re- 
mainder the second year. It may also be grown from 
sprouts and roots cuttings. 

Fropertiesof wood. — Heavy, hard, close grained and strong. 
It is dark brown in color with a thin light colored sapwood 
and takes a good polish. Specific gravity 0.7313; weight of a 
cubic foot 46.95 pounds. 

Uses. — The Wild Plum is pretty in flower and in fruit and 
is a good hardy ornamental tree as well as a good fruit tree. 
The fruit of the wild kinds is readily sold and is much used 
for culinary purposes and many of the cultivated kinds 
afford excellent table fruits. This is one of the best under- 
shrubs that can be put in our prairie groves, where it affords 
protection to the soil from evaporation and at the same time 
yields desirable though of course inferior fruit under such 
conditions. 

Prunus pennsylvanica. Wild Red Cherry. Bird 
Cherry. Pigeon Cherry. Pin Cherry. 

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, long pointed, finely and 
sharply serrate with incurved teeth often tipped with minute 
glands, thin, shining, green and smooth on both sides. Fruit 
ripens in July or August, a very small, right red drupe with 
thin sour flesh and smooth oblong stone that is ridged on the 
ventral margin. A small handsome tree that seldom reaches 
a height of 40 feet and is often a mere shrub. It has smooth 
reddish brown bark which peels oiT in transverse strips 
around the tree. 

Distribution. — Found in moist, rather rich soil from New- 
foundland west to the eastern slopes of the Coast Range and 
south to northern Illinois and Pennsylvania; also in North 
Carolina, Tennessee and Colorado. In Minnesota common 
throughout all but the southwestern part of the state where 
it rarely occurs. 



248 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 43. Prunus pennsylvanica. Wild Red Cherry. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of 
flower. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. i. Longitudinal section of 
fruit, slightly enlarged. 5. Cross section of fruit. 6. Embryo, enlarged. T. 
Axil of leaf showing stipules, one-half natural size. 8. Winter branchlet, one- 
half natural size. 



WILD BLACK CHERRY. 249 

Propagation. — Grown from seeds which should be stratified 
and sown in the spring or sown in autumn. They are dis- 
tributed by robins, wax-wing's and other birds that eat largely 
of the fruit. The Wild Red Cherry has thus become a very 
common tree in waste places, although not so common in our 
section as eastward, where it is one of the first trees to come 
in on old timber lands. 

Prvperties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained, light brown 
in color with thin yellow sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5023; a 
cubic foot weighs 31.30 pounds. 

Uses.- -The Wild Red Cherry is very hardy, grows rapidly 
under cultivation and is well adapted to prairie planting. It 
is shapely and handsome although a short lived tree. In the 
early spring it is conspicuous by reason of its great quantity 
of white flowers. It might be used for shade in timber plant- 
ings and for bird food. The fruit is used for domestic pur- 
poses and in the preparation of cough mixtures. Seedlings 
have been used to a limited extent as a stock for the culti- 
vated cherries. 

Prunus serotina. Wild Black Cherry. Rum Cherry. 

Leaves oval oblong, or lanceoJate-oblong taper-pointed, 
serrate, with two to four reddish glands on petiole. Flowers 
appear in June after the leaves are full grown, in long pendu- 
lous white racemes. Fruit somewhat larger than a pea, purp- 
lish black when ripe, smooth, one seeded, rarely two-seeded, 
ripens in August or September in Minnesota. A larere tree 
sixty or more feet high but generally much smaller at the 
limit of its range. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia westward through the 
Canadian Provinces and northern states to Dakota and south 
to Texas and Florida. In Minnesota common throughout all 
but the extreme northern part of the state in w^oods along 
shaded lake shores and banks. 

Fropa-gation. — The Wild Black Cherry is grown from seeds 
which are produced in great abundance. They should be 
sown when gathered in the autumn or stratified over winter 
and sown in the spring. 

Properties of wood. — Light, strong and rather hard with a 
close, straight grain and satiny surface susceptible of receiving a 



250 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 44. Prunus serotina. Wild Black Cherry. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of 
flower, enlarged. 8. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. Longitudinal 
section of fruit, natural size. 5. Cross section of fruit, natural size. 6. Winter 
branchlet, one-half natural size. 

beautiful polish. It is lig-ht brown or red with a thin layer of 
yellow sapwood but grows darker on exposure to the air. 
Specific gravity 0.5822; weight of a cubic foot 36.28 pounds. 

Uses. — The Wild Black Cherry has a pretty and often a 
stately form when growing single and is very ornamental 
when in flower and fruit. It is. however, liable to injuries 
from the tent caterpillar which is very fond of its leaves. It 
can often be introduced to advantage into timber plantings in 



CHOKE CHERRY. 251 

this section and is an object of much interest on account of 
its flowers and fruit. It is also a g-ood timber tree. The 
fruit is often used in a small way for making cherry brandy 
and in flavoring- alcoholic liquors. Medicinal properties are 
found in the bark especially in that of the branches and roots 
and are readily yielded to cold water for owing- to volatili- 
zation and chemical change boiling water must not be used. 
This extract contains hydrocyanic acid and is employed for 
infusions, syrups and fluid extracts which are used as tonics 
and sedatives in the treatment of pulmonary consumption and 
nervous debility. Cattle have been frequently poisoned by 
eating the wilted leaves. Children occasionally die from eat- 
ing the kernels of the pits or by swallowing the fruit whole. 
Fresh leaves are considered harmless as the poison is formed 
by chemical action in the leaves after being separated from 
the plant. The wood is valuable for cabinet making and fine 
interior finishing and is in great demand on account of its 
fine reddish brown color. 

Prunus virg-iniana. Choke Cherry. 

Leaves thin, broadly oval to oblong, usually abruptly 
pointed. Flowers in racemes ( shorter and closer than in P. 
serotina), appearing in June. Fruit ripens in summer, red, 
turning dark crimson, astringent when first colored but later 
loses much of its astringency and becomes sweet and edible. 
A strong tree with scented bark, rarely 30 feet high and gen- 
erally short and crooked. ( In this section it is generally 
covered with the excrescences called Black Knot, which are 
caused by the fungus Plowrightia morbosa.) 

Distribution. — From Labrador to British Columbia, north 
to within the Arctic Circle and south to Georgia, Texas 
and California. Very widely distributed. In Minnesota com- 
mon throughout the state along banks of streams and lake- 
shore. 

Fropagation. — Grown from seeds which should be strati- 
fied over winter and sown in the spring. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard and close grained, but 
not strong. It is lierht brown in color with a thick light 
colored sapwood. The specific gravity 0.6951: weightof acubic 
foot 43.42 pounds. 



252 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Uses. — The Choke Cherry is a very handsome tree when 
covered with its abundant racemes of pure white flowers and 
also when in fruit, but g-enerally it is so disfig'ured by Black 
Knot as to make it unsightly. The fruit is used in large 
quantities by the French Canadians and was formerly an 
important article of food among the northern Indians and is 
now used to some extent in the western states. In Minnesota 
and the Dakotas there is a form that is much superior to the 
common Choke Cherry in that it has larger, less astringent 
fruit. Some authors make it a separate species, ( Fruyms 
demissa, ) but Prof. Sargent regards it as a variety whose 
variations are due to the drier climate of the mid-continental 
states. 

Fea Faixiilj:^. 

Distinguished by the butterfly-shaped ( occasionally reg- 
ular) corolla, usually accompanied by ten monadelphous or 
diadelphus stamens (rarely distinct); fruit a legume: leaves 
alternate, compound with stipules. 

A large and important farnil}^, comprising trees, shrubs 
and herbs. Some of our most important agricultural plants 
belong here, such as the pea, bean, clover, alfalfa, vetch, pea- 
nut, etc., and among shrubs the Siberian Pea Tree (Caragana ), 
Cytisus, Bladder-senna (Colutea) and Wistaria. Important 
trees belonging here that are beyond our range are the Yel- 
low-wood ( Cladrastis), Sophora, Laburnum. Mesquit and 
Red Bud^ (Cercis). 

Genus GLEDITSIA. 

Gleditsia triacanthos. Honey Locust. Threethorn 
Acacia. Black Locust. 

Leaves evenly once or twice pinnately compound; thorns 
very stout, from 2 to 12 inches in length, and usually sending 
out two thorns as branches; but in some sections, notably in 

* Perhaps found in Southern Minnesota. 



HONEY LOCUST. 



253 




Plate 45. Gleditsia triacanthos. Honey Locust. 

1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural' size. 3. Diagram of flower, i. Longi- 
tudinal section of staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of pistil- 
late flower, enlarged. 6. Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 7. A spine 
and a single fruit showing seed, cross section of seed and embryo, one-half natural 
size. 8. Doubly pinnate leaf, one-half natural size. 9. Winter branchlet. 
half natural size. 



254 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Iowa, many trees may be found without thorns and these are 
especially desirable for wind breaks. Flowers in June, 
polyeramous, g-reenish and inconspicuous in small spike-like 
axillary racemes. Fruit a flat, linear, dark-colored pod 
often twelve inches long which becomes much twisted as the 
seed ripens. This pod contains a pulp which is sweet at first 
but after a few weeks ferments and becomes astringent. The 
seed ripens in autumn and the pods fall off in late autumn or 
early winter. The twisted form of the pods assists in the dis- 
tribution of the seed as the pods do not open until sometime 
after they fall and may be rolled for long distances by the 
wind over the frozen ground or on the snow. 

Distribution. — It inhabits rich woods and borders of 
streams from western New York, Pennsylvania and Georgia 
west to southern Ontario, eastern Nebraska and Louisiana. 

Fropagation. — The Honey Locust is easily grown from 
seeds which should be gathered in late autumn, early winter 
or as soon as the pods fall. The seeds must be scalded in 
the same manner as recommended for the Common Locust or 
they may remain in the soil a year before growing. 

Froperties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong and very durable 
in contact with the ground. It is coarse grained, of a red or 
bright reddish brown color with thin pale sap wood. Specific 
gravity 0.6740: weight of a cubic foot 42. pounds. 

Uses. — The Honey J^ocust is a valuable tree for street and 
ornamental planting for timber belts, wind breaks and for 
hedges wherever it is hardy; it has a graceful form, ^ is a 
rapid grower, easy to transplant, very free from insect and 
fungous diseases and not given to sprouting from the root. 
The wood is used for fence posts and rails, for the hubs of 
wheels and to some extent for consti'uction. It also makes 
good fuel. This tree is not generally hardy in Minnesota 
though it has stood very well in favorable locations in the 
southeastern portion of the state and even at St. Paul has 
done fairly well where protected but is likely to kill back in 
severe winters, though the roots are very hardy and generally 
renew the top the season following any winter injury. In 
Iowa and Missouri it forms a large tree often three feet 
through the trunk. The one-year-old seedlings are rather 



COFFEE TREE. 



255 




Plate 46. Gymnocladus dioicus. Coffee Tree. 



1. Inflorescence from staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Pistillate 
flower, one-half natural size. 3. Diagram of flower. 4. Longitudinal section of 
staminate flower, natural size. 5. Pistillate flower with a portion removed. 6. 
Pistil with section of ovary removed. 7. Portion of branch bearing a single fruit 
showing seed and embryo,' one-half natural size. 8. Cross section of seed, one- 
half natural size 9. Portion of leaf, one-half natural size. 10. Portion of win- 
ter branch, one-half natural size. 



25G TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

tender the first winter and should be duof and heeled in or 
hea.vily mulched at the end of the first season after which they 
are rather hardy. 

Genus GYMNOCLADUS. 

Gymnocladus dioicus. (G. canadensis,) Coffee Tree. 
Kentucky Coffee Tree. 

Leaves very larg-e, two to three feet long, twice pinnate, 
each partial leaf stalk bearing seven to thirteen ovate leaflets, 
the lowest pair with single leaflets. The leaflets stand verti- 
cally. The color of the leaves is a bluish green. The flowers 
are dioecious or polygamous, whitish, borne in large racemes 
which are much longer on the fertile than on the sterile trees. 
Fruit a large flat pod containing large seeds over one-half 
inch in diameter surrounded by a thick layer of dark colored 
sweet pulp. The fruit generally remains unopened on. the tree 
all winter. Flowers appear from May to July. 

Distribution. — One of the rarest forest trees of North 
America, found growing from western New York and southern 
Ontario west to the Minnesota Valley and eastern Nebraska 
and south between the Mississippi River and the Allegheny 
Mountains 'to Tennessee. In Minnesota it is found spar- 
ingly in southern and southeastern portions of the state north 
to near St. Paul and as far west as New Ulm. 

Propagation. — Grown from root cuttings or from seeds, 
which should be scalded before being sown as recommended 
for the seeds of Locust. 

Properties of wood.—Hesivy, not very hard, strong, coarse 
grained, likely to check in drying but very durable in contact 
with the ground: it .can be easily worked and takes a good 
polish. It is rich brown in color, with thin rather lighter 
colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6934: weight of a cubic 
foot 43.21 pounds. 

Uses.— The Coffee Tree is graceful and ornamental when 

in leaf and in winter is interesting from its peculiar naked 

and dead appearanoe. It is one of the latest trees to leaf out 
and the new growth is strikingly pretty. Tke leaflets near the 

ends of the leaves are bright pink, w^hile those that opened 

first are green or bronze colored. The young leaves in June 



COFFEE TREE. 



257 




Plate 47. Robinia pseudacacia. Locust. 
1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of the flower. 3- 
Flower, front view, one-half natural size. 4. Tube of stamens. 5. Longitudinal 
section of pistil. 6. Legume, one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of 
legume, one-half natural size. 

are a rich brown color. It is very hardy and is not particular 
about the soil in which it grows, but attains % largs size only 
in rich, deep, moist soils. The wood is occasionally used in 
cabinet making- and for fence posts, rails and in construction. 
As the name implies the seed has sometimes been used as a. 
substitute for coffee. Its chief value is for ornament. 



258 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus ROBINIA. 

Robinia pseud^cacia. Locust, Yellow Locust. 
Black Locust. Common Locust: False Acacia. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, composed of from 
9 to 17 leaflets. Flowers white, fragrant, in conspicuous 
pendulous racemes 3 to 5 inches long appearing in latter part 
of May or early in June. Pods flat, 4 to 5 inches long con- 
taining about 6 hard, small and rather fiat seeds which ripen 
in late autumn and often hang on the tree all winter. The 
light, handsome foliage of this tree constitutes one of its 
principal charms, the leaves open during the day and as night 
comes on close down as if for rest. The young growth is 
usually furnished with strong recurved prickles, though trees 
can frequently be found that are entirely free from them, and 
it is this latter form that is used in some European countries as 
fodder for cattle. A slender forest tree occasionally reaching 
the height of 60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 2 feet. 

Distribution.— Southern Pennsylvania to Indiana, Iowa 
and southward. Under cultivation it has become widely 
distributed. In Minnesota it is found along the Mississippi 
Kiver as far north as Minneapolis and occasionally elsewhere 
in this state, sometimes forming trees 50 feet or more in height 
but generally it is much smaller and often forms mere thickets 
which are occasionally killed back in severe winters. 

Propagation. — The Locust is grown from seeds, which may 
be gathered in the pods, kept in any dry place and planted in 
the spring. Just before planting the seeds should be scalded 
severely. This causes part of them to swell. Sift or pick 
these out and scald those remaining again. Continue this 
scalding and sifting until all have swelled. The seed can 
then be sown at once in well prepared soil and will in good 
soil produce plants three or more feet high the first season. 
They may also be grown from root cuttings and from sprouts. 

Froperties of* loood. — Heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, 
close grained and very durable in contact \viLh the ground. 
It is browm or light green with very thin, pale yellow sap- 
wood. The specific gravity is 0.7333: weight of a cubic foot 
45.7 pounds. 



MAPLES. 259 

Uses. — The Locust is too tender for general plantiner in 
Minnesota, but in favorable locations it makes a desirable 
lawn tree on account of its pretty foliage and white flowers. 
It can be sown in forest plantations but is not generally 
desirable for such places on account of its sharp prickles, it& 
tendency to sprout and its liability to being occasionally 
killed back although it seldom kills out. This tree is subject 
to the attacks of borers, which generally spoil the value of 
the timber for manufacturing purposes. The wood is valua- 
ble for posts, ribs of vessels, tree nails and anything which 
requires great strength. It is also excellent for fuel. It is a 
very popular tree in Europe and is said to be more exten- 
sively cultivated there than any other American tree. The 
bark of the root is tonic, or in large doses purgative and 
emetic and is used in homeopathic remedies. Three cases of 
poisoning in children who had eaten the root by mistake, have 
been recorded. 



jVIaple Eamily. 

A family composed of two genera, only one of which i& 
represented in America. 

Genus ACER. 

A genus of about 100 species of trees and shrubs, with 
watery often saccharine sap and opposite simple leaves. 
Flowers regular, generally polygamous or dioecious and 
sometimes apetalous; ovary 2-celled having two ovules in 
each cell. Fruit a double samara. The bark is astringent 
and yields coloring matter. 

Acer saccharum. [A. saccharinum,) Sugar Maple. 
Hard Maple. Rock Maple. 

Leaves large, 3 to 5 toothed, opposite, deep green above 
and paler green beneath. Flowers greenish yellow, in nearly 
sessile umbel-like corymbs, apetalous, appearing with the 
leaves in the spring. Fruit a double samara: wings rather 



260 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 48. Acer saccharum. Sugar Maple. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
I)earing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 
A. Longitudinal section of staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Pistillate flower, en- 
larged. 6. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Fruiting 
branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural 
size. 9. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11. Win- 
ter branchlet, one-half natural size. 

iDroad; seed ripens in autumn. The foliag"e becomes very 
l^rilliantly colored in autumn. 

Distribution. — A large and important tree in the northern 
and middle states, extending southward to Georgia and north 
to northern Minnesota. Very abundant in eastern Minnesota 
though seldom found in the western portions. It occurs at 
Lake Minnewaska in Pope County, and at the head waters of 
the Redwood River in Lyon County, and as far west as 



MAPLES. 261 

Hobert County, S. D.. where it occurs in the coulies at the 
liead waters of the Minnesota River. 

Fropagation.— The Sugar Maple is propagated by seeds, 
'Which should be gathered in autumn and sown at once or kept 
over winter as recommended for the Ash and sown in the 
.spring. 

Properties of wood.—Yery hard, heavy, compact and strong 
■with a fine satiny surface susceptible of taking a good polish. 
The perfectly seasoned sapwood is light colored and the 
li^artwood is light brown of various shades. Specific gravity 
0.6916; weight of a cubic foot 43.08 pounds. 

Uses.— The Sugar Maple is very hardy over most of Min- 
nesota in rich, porous, moist soils when grown in forests and 
forms our best fuel wood. It does well as a street tree on 
suitable soil in the southeastern part of this state if the trunk 
is shaded. When not thus protected, the trunk is liable to 
;sun scald. In the northwestern and western portions it often 
ivinter-kills badly in exposetl locations, especially when young, 
^nd before becoming well established, and for this reason 
is not well adapted to general planting. 

The w^ood of the Sugar Maple is more valuable and more 
generally used than that of any other American Maple. It 
possesses a high fuel value, is largely used for interior finish 
of buildings, especially for floors, in the manufacture of fur- 
niture, in turnery for handles of tools and in ship buildinsr 
for keels, etc. In the United States shoe lasts and pegs are 
made almost exclusively from this wood. Accidental forms 
in which the grain is beautifully curled and contorted known 
^s "curled maple- ' and "bird's eye maple'* are common and 
highly prized for cabinet making. The ashes of the wood are 
rich in alkili and yield large quantities of potash. The wood 
of the Minnesota and Wisconsin Sugar Maple is so very 
Iiard and uneven in grain that it has not been worked much 
into lumber and the supply of Hard Maple lumber manufac- 
tured here is mostly imported from Michigan, vvhere clear 
^tock is more plentiful. Maple suo-ar is almpst the exclusive 
product of this tree. It is made by evaporating the sap, 
wrhich is procured by tapping the trees in early spring some 
-weeks before the buds beain to swell. About three or four 



262 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 49. Acer platanoides. Norway Maple. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower. 3. 
feet flower. 4. Underside of flower. 5. Pistil on disk. 6. Stamen, enlarged; 
7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of seed. 9> 
Leaf, one-half natural size. 



MAPLES. 263 

gallons of sap are usually required to make a pound of 
su^ar. Two or tlii^e pounds of sugar per tree is the averas^e 
yield, but large isolated trees will often yield very much more 
than this. When tapping is properly doae it does not 
seriously im|!iair the health of the tree. 

Acer platanoides. Norway Maple. 

Leaves broad, smooth, thin, bright green on both sides, 
their 5 short taper-pointed lobes set with coarse taper-pointed 
teeth. Flowers numerous with both sepals and petals dis- 
tinct, yellowish, conspicuous, in erect corymbose clusters 
terminating the shoot of the season, or some from lateral 
l)uds appearing, with the leaves. Fruit in drooping clusters 
with large divergent wings spreading 2ito 3i inches, ripening 
in autumn. Buds blunt pointed and rather divergent: new 
gro\^4h often reddish; juice milky. Resembles the Sugar 
Maple in general appearance but is easily distinguished from 
it. Its leaves hold green later than other maples and turn a 
bright yellow in autumn. A round headed tree attaining a 
laeight of from 30 to 60 feet. 

Distvibuiion. — Northern and central Europe and Asia. 

FropagaUon. — By seeds for the species and by budding, 
grafting or layering for the varieties. 

Propertiesof wood. — Heavy, hard and durable undercover. 
Specific gravity, air dried, 0.68. 

Uses. — The Norway Maple has been much used as an 
ornamental tree in the northeastern states, where it is long 
lived and often planted in preference to the Sugar Maple near 
the sea coast. In this section it has not been widely tried, 
but at the Minnesota Experiment Station it has never been 
seriously injured by the cold during the past twelve years and 
has withstood drouth extremely well. In the very dry sum- 
mer of 1894, Birch, Black Cherry and European Larch died 
out in large numbers in the forest plantation, while on similar 
land near by the Norway Maple grew vigorously, its leaves 
retaining their dark green color throughout the season. The 
wood of the Norway Maple is used by the joiner, wheelwright 
and carver for a variety of purposes. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties of the Norway Maple, 
the most durable of which are the two following: 



264 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 50. Acer saccharinvm. Soft Maple. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2, Branctt 
bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 
4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Pistil, enlarged, 6. Longitudinal section of 
pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longi- 
tudinal section of samara, one-half natural size. 9. Longitudinal section of 
seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11. Embryo, displayed, enlarged. 

Acer platanoides schwedlerii. Schwedler Maple. 

A beautiful variety with new growth, bark and leaves of 
a bright purplish or crimson color which later changes to a- 
purplish green. A valuable tree which has stood at the Min- 
nesota Experiment Station for six years. 

Acer platanoides reitenbaclii. Reitenbach. Maple. 

An excellent and striking variety with dark purple leaves 
which hold their color throughout the season. 



MAPLES. 265 

Acer saccharinum. [A. dasycarpum.) Soft Maple. 
White or Silver Maple. Silverleaf Maple. 

Leaves deeply palmately 5-lobed, silvery white and smooth 
"beneath but downy while young. Flowers greenish, apetalous, 
on short pedicles, in axillary clusters, appearing- before the 
leaves; ovary and young fruit downy. Fruit with large 
-divergent wings, smooth at maturity though downy when 
young, ripens in early summer about the time the leaves are 
of full size. A large quick growing tree often 90 feet high 
^ith more or less pendulous branches and light airy foliage 
which gives.it a graceful appearance. 

Distrihution. — It is found in the north from the Valley of 
the St. John River in New Brunswick to southern Ontario; it 
■extends southward through the United States to western 
Plorida and west to eastern Dakota and Nebraska. It is 
adapted to a wide variety of soils and is especially abundant 
along rivers, often growing luxuriantly on sand bars and 
land that is inundated by spring freshets. A very common 
tree in southern and central Minnesota and north along the 
Mississippi Valley. 

Propagation. — By seeds which drop off in early summer 
and where they fall on moist soil they soon grow. They are 
very delicate, however, and cannot be kept in good condition 
many weeks after they are ripe. If sown at once in good 
moist soil they will often produce plants two feet or more 
high the first season and the growth is also very rapid in 
^subsequent years. The ornamental varieties are propagated 
by grafting or budding on the seedlings and occasionally by 
layering. 

Properties of wood. — Light, hard (though not nearly so 
hard as Hard Maple) rather brittle and easily worked; it is 
pale, faintly tinged with brown: the sapwood is light colored 
and thick. Specific gravity 0.5269; weight of a cubic foot 
:32.84 pounds. 

Uses. — The Soft Maple is exceedingly hardy and of very 
rapid growth but suffers from a deficiency of moisture in the 
soil. It makes a very good street and lawn tree on retentive 
land and is adapted to a wide variety of soils. The limbs 
^re brittle and the crotches of the tree are weak and likely 



266 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



to break in severe wind storms. This is roost apparent 
where it grows on dry land, but if the ti^es are pruned occa- 
sionally they make very satisfactory shade trees and are 
highly esteemed for this purpose in many sections of Minne- 
sota. The Soft Maple is also successfully used for shelter 
belts. It sun scalds occasionally though not commonly. 

The wood makes very good 
fuel and is well adapted for 
interior finishing and floor- 
ing and a form of it having 
a curly figure is used as 
veneering for elegant fur- 
niture and interior finish- 
ing. Maple Sugar i& 
sometimes made from the 
sap of this tree buo it is es- 
timated that twice as mucli 
sap is necessary for a giv- 
en quantity of sugar from 
this tree as from the Sugar 
Maple. 

Varieties. -- There are 
many varieties cultivated 
for ornamental planting, 
among the best of which is 
a form known as Wier's 
Cutleaf Maple, which has 
finely divided leaves and 
a very graceful pendent 
habit. It'isabout as iardy 
as the species and is one 




Figure 47. Leaf of Wier's Cutleaf 
Maple — y2 natural size. 



of the most satisfactory small ornamental trees. 

Acer rubrum. Red Maple. Scarlet Maple. Swamp 
Maple. 

Leaves palmately 3 to o-lobed, opposite. Flowers crim- 
son scarlet or sometimes yellowish, generally dioecious: 
appearing in sessile lateral clusters before the leaves, very 
early in the sprins: often before the snow has disappeared. 



MAPLES. 



267 




Plate 51. Acer rubrum. Red Maple. 



1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one half natural size. 2. Branch bear- 
ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. 
Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longi- 
tudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of seed, 
enlarged. 8. Embryo, displayed, enlarged, 9. Winter branchlet, one-half 
natural size. 



268 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

The fruit on prolonged drooping pedicils ripens in earljr 
summer about the time the leaves are expanded and then, 
drops off. This is a slender tree somewhat resembling the 
Soft Maple but of much slower growth and more compact 
habit. It will finallj' attain as large size as the Soft Maple^ 

Distribution. — It is found naturally distributed over about 
the same area as the Soft Maple, but does not appear to be- 
a common tree anywhere in Minnesota and seems to be wholly 
absent in the western half of this state. 

Pivpagation. — The Red Maple is propagated in the same 
manner as the Soft Maple. 

Froperties of wood. — Heavy, close grained, easily worked 
and not very strong. It is light brown often tinged with red 
with a smooth satiny surface. The sapwood is thick and 
lighter colored than the heartwood. Specific gravity 0.6178; 
weight of a cubic foot 38.5 pounds. 

Uses. — On account of its slow growth the Red Maple is> 
seldom used for planting, although very hardy. It is, how- 
ever, very ornamental in the spring when loaded with its 
brilliant red fruit, which often appears while the branches are 
still destitute of leaves. And the gorgeous blaze of scarlet 
coloring of its leaves in autumn makes it a very conspicuous 
feature of the landscape at that season It could often be 
employed to advantage in ornamental planting. The timber 
is a valuable fuel; it is used for floors, cabinet work, turnery 
and in the manufacture of shovels, bowls and small wooden 
ware generally. The curly figure is sometimes found in thi& 
wood and is sometimes used for choice veneering. The sap 
of the Red Maple is not so rich in sugar as that of the Sugar 
Maple, but produces a very good quality of maple sugar. 

Acer spicatum. Mountain Maple. 
Leaves 3 or slightly 5-lobed, thin, downy on the lower 
surface, at matur-ity glabrous above. Flowers small, green- 
ish yellow, in upright dense, sometimes compound racemes^ 
appearing after the leaves, the fertile towards the base and 
the sterile at the ends of the racemes; petals much longer than 
the sepals. Fruit with small erect or divergent wings. With- 
in our range a low shrub with slender erect branches; in the 
shade in moist woods the branches are often rather flexible 



MAPLES. 269 

and it is probably on this account that it is given the name of 
Vine Maple in some parts of this section. 

Distribution. — Valley of the St. Lawrence to northern 
Minnesota and the Saskatchewan, southwards through the 
mountains to Georgia. Common in Minnesota south to Mille 

Lacs. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, light brown with thick 
lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5330: weight of a 
cubic foot 33.22 pounds. 

Uses. — The Mountain Maple may occasionally be used to 
advantage in shrubbery in shady situations. The tree is so 
small that the wood is of no special economic importance. 

Acer pennsylvanicum. Striped Maple. Moosewood. 

Leaves large, 5 to 7 inches long, palmately 3-nerved, 3- 
lobed at the apex, finely and doubly serrate. Flow^ers green« 
ish in slender drooping long-stemmed racemes; the sterile and 
fertile generally produced on different racemes on the same 
plant, appearing when the leaves are nearly full grown. 
Fruit with spreading wings, in long drooping racemes, ripens 
in autumn. An upright shrub in this section seldom taking 

on a tree form. 

Distribution. — Maine and Minnesota southwards to Vir- 
ginia and Kentucky. 

Propagation. — By seeds as recommended for Ash. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft and close grained, lighW 
brawn with thick lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 
0.5299; weight of a cubic foot 33.02 pounds. 

JJses. — The Striped Maple is used in New York and south- 
wards for lawn planting and may in this section be used for 
shrubberies. The brilliant foliage and bud scales in early 
spring, the graceful flowers and summer foliage, the brilliant 
autumn coloring of the leaves and the conspicuously striped 
markings of the bark make the Striped Maple an interesting 
and attractive feature of the landscape. Well w^orthy of a 
trial in shrubberies on retentive soil. 

Acer tartaricum. Tartarian Maple. 

Leaves ovate or oblong, mostly undivided, incised-serrate^ 
very. bright colored in autumn; young branches tomentose. 



270 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



^ 




Plate 52. Acer negundo. Box Elder. 

1. Flowering branch from staminate tree, one half natural size. 2. Flower- 
ing branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Diagram of flower. 4. 
Staminate flower. 5. Pistillate flower. 6. Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged 
7 Fruiting branch, one half natural si«e. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, one- 
.half natural size. 9. Embryo, enlarged. 



MAPLES. 271 

Flowers conspicuous, white, in erect clusters terminating- the 
shoots of the season, appearing after the leaves. Fruit ripens 
in autumn. A small tree or shrub. 

Distrihutio7i.— Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — By seeds as recommended for Ash. 

Uses, — Valuable for variety in ornamental planting. 
Very hardy at the Minnesota Experiment Station. 

Varieties, — 

Acer tartaricum ginnala. 

This has mostly 3-lobed leaves which are longer than 
those of the species. 

Acer negundo. [Negundo aceroides.) Box Elder. 
Ash-leaf Maple. 

Leaves opposite, pinnately compound with 3 to 5 leaflets. 
Flowers dioecious, apetalous small, greenish, appearing just 
before or with the leaves. The seeds are oval in form, ripen 
in autumn and hang on the trees until winter in this section. 
Many trees bear fruits that to outward appearance contain 
perfect seeds but w^hich upon examination will be found to be 
empty seed vessels. 

Distribution, — One of the most widely distributed and 
hardiest trees of North America ranging from the Valley of 
the Saskatchewan to Florida and Texas and from Vermont to 
the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. In the Minnesota 
River bottoms this tree grows seventy feet high and three 
feet in diameter, while in severe locations it becomes a low 
bushy tree. 

PropagatiOTSL. — By seeds sown as soon as ripe in the fall or 
stratified over winter and sown in the spring. 

Properties of wood, — Light, soft, close grained, but weak. 
It is creamy white with thick hardly distinguishable sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.4328; weight of a cubic foot 26.97 pounds. 

Uses. — The Box Elder is one of the hardiest of trees and 
is highly esteemed for street and lawn planting and for wind 
breaks in severe locations. It has, however, been too often 
planted where the White Elm or Green Ash should have been 
used. The wood makes good fuel; it is sometimes used for 
interor finishing, woodenware, paper pulp, etc. Maple sugar 



212 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

is sometimes made from this tree though the sap is not so rich 
in sugar as the sap of the Sugar Maple. 



Biackeye P^amily. 

An order consisting of two genera, the following of which 
-contains about 15 species natives of America and Asia. 
None is native of Minnesota. 

Genus -ffiSCTJLTJS. 

Leaves opposite, digitate, 3 to 9-foliate. Flowers in a 
terminal dense panicle, often polygamous, most of them with 
imperfect pistils and only those near the base of the branches 
of the inflorescence perfect and fertile; calyx tubular, o-lobed, 
often oblique or swollen at the base; petals 4 or 5; more or 
less unequal with claws; stamens 5 to 8; ovary 3-celled with 2 
ovules in each cell. Fruit a roundish leathery pod, 3-celled 
and 3-seeded or usually by suppression 1 or 2-celled and 1 or 
2 seeded, the remnants of the abortive cells and seeds common- 
ly visible in the ripened pods, seeds 1 to li inches broad with 
a hard chestnut brown coat; embryo filling the seed; cotyledons 
very thick and fleshy. The large seeds of both species con- 
tain a large amount of starch but present with it is a bitter 
principle, esculine, which renders them unfit for food for man 
although they are sometimes fed to sheep, goats and swine. 
This bitter principle may be removed by repeated washings in 
pure water and were it not for the cost of the operation the 
nuts could be made a valuable food for man. 

Proi^agation. — Both species here described are easily 
propagated by seeds which should generally be sown in 
autumn for they soon lose their vitality; also by layers made 
in spring or fall. The varieties may be grown by grafting, 
-ffisculus hippocastanum. Horse Chestnut. 

Leaves made up of 5 to 7 (generally 7) leaflets. Inflor- 
escence large and conspicuous. Petals 5, spreading, white, 
spotted with purple and yellow. A large tree with round top, 
large sticky buds and very dense foliage. 



OHIO BUCKEYE. 



273 




Plate 53. ^sculus glabra. Ohio Buckeye. 
1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower. 3, Lon- 
gitudinal section of staminate flower, natural size. 4. Longitudinal section of 
pistillate flower, natural size. 5. Transverse sections of pistil, enlarged. 6. 
Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 7. Portion of summer branch, one-half 
natural size. 8. Fruit with portion removed, one -half natural size. 9. Longi- 
tudinal section of seed, one-half natural size. 10. Winter bud, one-half natural 
size. 



274 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — Described under genus. 

Properties of wood. — Lright, soft, easily worked, light- 
colored, not durable in contact with the soil. 

Uses. — The Horse Chestnut is used in the eastern and 
central states as a shade tree. It is not sufficiently hardy for 
general planting in this state and should never be used except 
in very favorable locations in southern Minnesota. The bark: 
has been used in tanning and as a substitute for cinchona in. 
the treatment of fevers and in homeopathic remedies. 

iEseulus glabra. Ohio Buckeye. Fetid Buckeye. 

Leaves made up of 5 to 7 (generally 5) leaflets. Inflores- 
cence appearing with the leaves, 5 to 6 inches long, not large 
and showy like the Horse Chestnut. Stamens usually 7, 
curved, longer than the pale yellow-green corolla; petals 4, 
upright. Buds large, not sticky. Tree generally not more 
than 30 feet high. 

Distribution. — Pennsylvania, south to northern Alabama 
and west to southern Iowa, central Kansas and Indian 
Territory. > 

Propagation. — Described under -genus. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained but not 
strong, often blemished by dark lines of decay; nearly white 
with thin darker colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4542; 
weight of a cubic foot 28.31 pounds. 

Uses. — The Ohio Buckeye is much hardier than the Horse 
Chestnut and stands fairly well in this section as far north 
as St. Paul, where there are some very good small specimens 
in the parks. It is of value to give variety to ornamental 
plantings. The wood is used in the manufacture of wooden 
ware, paper pulp and artificial limbs; for the latter purpose 
it is preferred to that of all other American trees v 



BUCKTHORN. 275 

Biicktliorn Family. 

'■< 

Genus RHAMNUS. 

We have no native species of importance in this genus. 
H. catharticus. a foreign species, is so valuable as an orna- 
mental shrub that it is here described. 

Rhamnus catharticus. Buckthorn. English Buck- 
thorn . 

Leaves ovate, minutely serrate, opposite or nearly so. 
Flowers usually dioecious, small, greenish. Fruit a 3 to 4 
seeded black berry hanging on the branches all winter. A 
shrub or small tree with thorny branchlets. 

Distribution. — Throughout northern Europe where it is 
native. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which should be gathered in 
autumn, kept stratified over winter and planted in the spring 
or by layers. If the fruit is allowed to hang on the bushes 
until spring in this section many of the seeds may be injured. 

Uses. — The Buckthorn is used largely for hedges, for 
which purpose it is one of the hardiest, thriftiest and cleanest 
plants that can be used in this section. It bears pruning well 
and hedges of it can be made very ornamental. As single 
specimens it is desirable for park planting and for screens. 
The seeds and innerbark possess medicinal qualities. 



276 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 54. Rhamnus catharticus. Buckthorn. 



1. Flowering branch from staminate plant, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch from pistillate plant, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged 
4. Longitudinal section of staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Pistillate flower, en- 
larged, 6. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Cross section 
of ovary. 8. Single fruit, one-half natural size. 9. Single fruit with a part re- 
moved to show nutlets. 10. Cross section of seed. 11. Embryo. 12. View 
of grounds showing the use of Buckthorn for a hedge. 



BASSWOODS. 277 

Ijinden Family. 

A family of about 35 g-enera and 245 species widely dis- 
tributed in warm and tropical regions, a few in tHe temperate 
zone. 

Genus TILIA. 

A genus of about 12 species, only one of which is found 
in Minnesota. They are all handsome, valuable trees with 
soft white wood. 

Leaves alternate, more or less heart-shaped, often soft 
and downy. Flowers with five spatulate, oblong petals, 
cream colored, in small cyomes or clusters, hanging on an 
axillary, slender peduncle, which is attached to a long, slen- 
der and thin leaf -like bract. Fruit a small globular nut, one- 
celled, one or two seeded, attached to the leaf-like bract and 
ripening in autumn. The flowers are fragrant and yield a 
large quantity of clear, white, delicately flavored honey. The 
European Linden (T. vulgaris) is mentioned here as being 
one of promising value for cultivation in this section. 

Tilia americana. Basswood. American Linden. 
White Wood. Bee Tree. 

Leaves large, alternate, nearly round or more or less 
heart-shaped, commonly oblique at the base, serrate abruptly 
pointed, green on both sides and glabrous, or nearly so. 
Flowers yellowish-white, conspicuous, fragrant, appearing in 
June. Tree large, often attaining a height of 70 feet and a 
diameter of 3 feet. The bark of the trunk is furrowed and its 
light brown surface is broken into small, thin scales. The 
bark on the young growth is light gray and gradually 
becomes dark and finally brov>^n. Very few varieties of this 
species are cultivated. 

Distribution. — It is found from New Brunswick west to 
Assiniboia and south to Georgia and Texas. In Minnesota 
the Basswood is generally common throughout the state and 
is very abundant in the Big Woods. 



278 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 55. Tilia americana. Basswood. 

1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower. 3. A 
flower with two sepals and two petals removed. -4. A cluster of stamens with their 
petaloid scale, enlarged. 5. A stamen, enlarged. 6. Pistil, showing longitudi- 
nal section of o^ary, enlarged. 7. Cross section of ovary, enlarged. 8. Cluster 
of fruit separated from bract. 9. Cross section of fruit. 10. Embryo, showing 
o-lobed cotyledons. 

Propagation. — The Basswood is generally grown from the 
seeds, which even when stratified and exposed to frost the first 
winter will often fail to start until a year from the following* 
spring. It may also be grown from layers, and from cuttings 
of the younger wood by using the solar pit. It sprouts 
readily from the stump if cut in winter and renews itself very 
satisfactorily in this way; it may also be grafted. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, tough, close grained, 
compact and easily worked. The sapwood is very thick and 



BASSWOODS. 279 

when properly seasoned is nearly white in color but gener- 
ally it can hardly be distinguished from the light brown 
heartwood. It warps badly when exposed to weather and rots 
quickly when in contact with moisture. The specific gravity 
is 0.4525; weight of a cubic foot 28.20 pounds. 

Uses. — The Basswood is a good street and lawn tree in 
suitable locations taking on a very beautiful form and is not 
nearly so much used for this purpose as it should be. It is 
very hardy and resists drouth well and is desirable in timber 
plantings in this section. Newly transplanted street trees of 
this species are liable to injury from sun scald in this section 
until they are well established and for this reason should 
have their trunks protected from the sun for several years 
after they are set out. 

The wood is largely sawed into lumber and under the name 
of white-wood is used in the manufacture of cheap furniture, 
wooden ware, carriage boxes etc. , for interior finishing and 
a variety of other purposes. It is also used for paper pulp 
but makes an inferior'quality of paper. The inner bark, known 
as bast, is occasionally made into coarse^cordage and matting 
The manufacture of these latter materials from European 
Linden has been conducted on a large scale in Europe but has 
never? attained any importance in the United States. The 
bast fibre is obtained by stripping the bark from the trees in 
the spring and soaking it until the mucilage that binds the 
layers together is soaked out. 

Tilia vulgaris. European Basswood. European Lin- 
den. 

Native of northern Europe, forming a large tree. The 
wood of :;this species is much like that of the American 
Basswood. c The leaves, however, are smaller and more reg- 
ularly heart shaped. The tree is compact in habit and has 
numerous short, rather slender reddish twigs. There are 
many varieties. This species has been doing very well for 
about seven years in the forest plantation at the Minnesota 
Experiment Station and seems to be of some value for this 
section. The varietis of the broad leaved European Linden 
( T. Platy phyllos) have failed in this section. 



280 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 56. Elaeagnus angustifolia. Russian Olive. 
1. Flowering branch, natural size. 2. Perfect flower, enlarged. 3. Perfect 
flower with a part of corolla and stamens removed, enlarged. 4. Upper part of 
pistil showing style and stigma, enlarged. 5, Corolla, displayed, enlarged. 6. 
Staminate flower with a portion removed, showing rudimentary pistil, enlarged. 
7. Portion of branch bearing fruit, natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of 

fruit, natural size. 9. Embryo, displayed. 10. Portion of leaf showing stellate 
pubescence on upper surface. 11. General view of tree. 



ASHES. 281 

Oleaster Family. 

Genus ELAEAGNUS. 

Shrubs or trees, silvery-scurfy or stellate pubescent with 
entire leaves and perfect or polygamous flowers. The lower 
part of the perianth of fertile flowers encloses the ovary and 
ripens into a fleshy or mealy mass around the akene-like 
true fruit; the upper part is 4-cleft and deciduous. Corolla 
none; stamens 4, borne on the tube of the perianth. 

Elaeagnus angustifolia. Russian Olive. 

Leaves narrowly lanceolate, 2 to 3 inches long, white 
scurfy on lower side, stellate pubescent ou the upper. Peri- 
anth whitish outside and yellowish inside. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. 

Fropagation. — By seeds which grow readily, by layers and 
by autumn-made cuttings. 

Uses. — The Russian Olive is a very hardy small orna- 
mental tree of very pretty habit, chiefly valued for the con- 
trast it gives to plantings. It has proved a very satisfactory 
tree in this section and has endured drouth well at the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station and at the Coteau Farm in Lyon 
County, Minnesota, and in South Dakota. 

Olive Family. 

Genus FRAXINTJS. 

Leaves opposite, petioled, odd-pinnate with 3 to 15-toothed 
or entire leaflets. Flowers small, dioecious or polygamous 
and apetalous in racemes or panicles from the axils of last 
year's leaves; stamens 2; ovary 2-celled. Fruit a flattened 
samara, winged at the apex, usually 1-seeded. 

Propagation. — By seed which may be sown as gathered in 



282 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 57. Fraxinus americana. White Ash. 



1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 
4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 6. 
Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half 
natural size. 8. Seed, ^ natural size. 9. Embryo, natural size. 10. Winter 
buds, one half natural size. 11. Leaf, one-half natural size. 



ASHES. 283 

autumn or which may be stratified over winter and sown in 
in the sprinef. A good way to keep these seeds over winter is 
to place them on the surface of a garden walk putting a box 
over them and cutting a trench around the box to keep the 
water away. They will not grow if kept too dry. 

Fraxinus americana. White Ash. 

Leaves with 7 to 9 leaflets which are usually rounded at 
the base and generally entire in outline or very slightly ser- 
rate. Flowers dioecious appearing with or rather before the 
leaves. Fruit ripe in autumn cylindrical and winged at one 
end and surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx. The 
bark on the young twigs is rather dark, nearly smooth and free 
from spots. A large and valuable tree commonly confounded 
in this section with the Green Ash and the Red Ash both of 
which, however, are smaller trees and mucb hardier, produce 
seed at an earlier age and in larger quantities and altogether 
are better adapted to prairie planting than the White Ash. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia west to northern Minne- 
sota and eastern Nebraska and south to northern Florida and 
Mississippi. 'In Minnesota the White Ash appears to be a 
rare tree. In the western part of the state and in the Dakotas 
it is wholly replaced by Green Ash or what seems to be a 
hopeless mixture of Green Ash and Red Ash. 

Propagation,— See genus. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained 
and tough although brittle when old; brown with thick lighter 
colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6543: weight of a cubic 
foot 40.77 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Ash is a good ornamental tree in spite 
of its late foliage and is desirable for timber belts in the 
milder portions of this section, but on the prairies does not 
grow as fast as the Green Ash. The wood is of less value 
when grown here than when grown in the northeastern states. 
It is used in immense quantities in the manufacture of agri- 
cultural implements, carriages and furniture, for the interior 
finishing of buildings and for any purpose where a light 
colored tough wood is needed. The wood of what is termed 
second growth trees, i. e., those springing up after the origi- 
nal forest has been removed or from seed scattered in open 



284 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

fields is usually superior in toughness to the first growth or 
large trees. The inner bark of the White Ash has some 
medicinal properties and is used in homeopathic practice, 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica. ( F. puhescens. ) Red Ash. 

Leaflets oblong-lanceolate to ovate, mostly coarsely ser- 
rate, velvety pubescent on their lower surface like the young 
shoots. Flowers dioecious; calyx present and persistent in 
the fruit. This tree is easily distinguished in the eastern 
states but in this section it merges into the Green Ash and is 
often difficult to distinguish from it. 

Distribution. — It has about the same range as the Green 
Ash but is less common west of the Mississippi River. 

Propagation. — See genus. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, rather strong and brit- 
tle and coarse grained; light brown with thick lighter colored 
sapwood streaked with yellow. Specific gravity 0.6215; 
weight of a cubic foot 38.96 pounds. 

Uses. — In this section the Red Ash is used for planting 
the same as Green Ash. The wood is often substituted for 
that of the White Ash, which is much more valuable. 

Fraxinus lanceolata. ( F. veridis. ) Green Ash. 

The Green Ash closely resembles the Red Ash, from which 
it is distinguished in extreme forms by its glabrous leaves 
and branchlets and by its rather narrower and shorter and 
usually more serrate leaves, which are lustrous and bright 
green on both surfaces. However, in western Minnesota and 
the Dakotas these two species run together and are often indis- 
tinguishable. The flowers and fruit of the two species are 
alike although many forms occur on each. Professor Sargent 
regards the Green Ash as a variety of the Red Ash. 

"The bark on the preceding year's growth of the Green 
Ash is noticebly lighter colored than that of the White Ash, 
and shows many more rather lighter spots or warts. The 
leaflets are usually strongly serrate. The leaves are bright 
dark green in color although somewhat lighter below. The 
young growth of new wood is usually smooth and glabrous, 
while the mid veins of the leaves frequently show some pub- 
escence on the lower side." (L. R. Moyer.) 



ASHES. 285 

Distribution, — From the shores of Lake Champlain west to 
the valley of the Saskatchewan and eastern range of the Rocky 
Mountains and south to Florida, Texas and Arizona. In 
Minnesota one of the most common trees along water courses 
in the western part of the state. It is probable that about all 
the Ash in western Minnesota and the Dakotas is Green Ash 
or a hopeless mixture of it with Red Ash. 

Propagation, — The Green Ash grows readily from seeds 
as described under genus. 

Propertiesof wood. — Hard, strong, brittle and rather coarse 
grained; it is brown, with thicker, lighter colored sapwood. 
Specific gravity is 0.7117; weight of a cubic foot 44.35 pounds. 

Uses, — The Green Ash is one of the hardiest trees known 
and is very valuable for windbreaks and ornamental plantings 
on the prairies of Minnesota and the Dakotas; and through- 
out this section should often take the place of the Cottonwood. 
Its great hardiness against cold and drouth, its easy propa- 
gation from seed and its rapid growth make it especially fitted 
for general planting. The wood is used for the same? pur- 
poses as White Ash but is of inferior quality. 

Fraxinus nigra. ( F. samhucifolia. ) Black Ash- 
Swamp Ash. Hoop Ash. 

Flowers dioecious or polygamous without calyx. Leaflets 7 
to 11, oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; the lateral sessile. 
It naturally inhabits cold, wet swamps and the low banks of 
streams and lakes. Generally a small slender tree. The 
bruised foliage exhales the odor of Elder. 

Distribution. — Cold swamps and low banks of streams 
from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Virginia and 
Arkansas. In Minnesota frequent throughout the state. 

Propagation, — As described under genus except that seeds 
of this are different from those of other native species in not 
growing the first season after planting, but must be kept 
stratified for one year. 

Properties of wood.— The Black Ash is heavy, rather soft, 
not strong, tough, coarse grained, durable in contact with 
the soil and easily separated into thin layers. It is dark 
brown with thin light brown or often nearly white sapwood. 



286 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 58. Fraxinus nigra. Black Ash. 

1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Pistillate flower showing rudi- 
mentary stamens, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of orary. enlarged. 5. 
Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half 
natural size. 7. Embryo. 8. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. 



CATALPA. 287 

The specific gravity is 0.6318; weight of a cubic foot 39.37 
pounds. 

Uses, — The Black Ash is of very little value for planting 
but mig-ht sometimes be used to advantage in wet lands; it is 
a slow grower and short lived in our prairie soils. It is 
used extensively in the manufacture of furniture, for interior 
finishing, barrel hoops, baskets and chair seats. For this 
latter purpose the wood is split in as many layers as there 
are annual rings, which may be done very readily. There 
are peculiar excrescences popularly known as knots or 
* 'burls" that form on the Black Ash and sometimes these 
grow as large as a bushel basket or larger. They are a sort 
of dwarfed branches. It has been found that when these 
* 'burls" are properly sawed they show a pretty curly grain 
and make very desirable veneering for furniture and for 
interior finishing and they are sought aftei' for this purpose. 
However, in this section the "burls" seldom if ever grow to 
sufficient size to become of commercial importance. 



Bi^nonia Family. 

Genus CATALPA. 

A genus of four or five species of trees, natives of the 
West Indies, North America, Japan and China. Leaves sim- 
ple, opposite or in whorls of three. Flowers in terminal 
panicles; calyx deeply 2-lipped: corolla inflated bell-shaped, 
the 5-lobed border more or less 2-lipped and wavy. Fruit a 
long slender hanging pod; seed, 2-winged with silky fringe. 

Catalpa speciosa. Hardy Catalpa. Western Ca- 
talpa. 

Leaves large, opposite or in threes, heart-shaped at base, 
long-pointed, thick, firm, dark green above, falling after the 
first severe autumn frost. Flowers appear in June in large 
panicles, very conspicuous and pretty; corolla about two 
inches long, nearly white, faintly spotted, the lower lobes 



288 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 59. Catalpa speciosa. Hardy Catalpa. 

1. Panicle of flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Corolla, displayed, showing^ 
stamens, one-h^lf natural size. 3. Single fruit, one-half natural size, i. Seed, 
one-half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of seed, one-half natural size. 



HARDY C ATA LP A. 289- 

notched; calyx purple. Fruit 9 to 20 inches long-, about one-^ 
half inch in diameter at the middle and tapering towards both 
ends; it ripens in autumn, generally remains on the tree until 
spring and then splits into two concave valves. The seed i& 
light brown about an inch long and one-third of an inch wide; 
the wings are rounded at the ends and terminate with a fringe 
of silky hairs. The ends of the branches die in winter with- 
out forming a terminal bud. A large and important tree in 
the forests within its range where it attains a height of over 
100 feet and a diameter of 3 to 4i feet. 

Distribution. — Borders of streams and lakes, and fertile 
and inundated bottom lands in southern Illinois and Indiana, 
western Kentucky and Tennessee, southeastern Missouri and 
northeastern Arkansas. 

Propagation.— B J seeds and it is said by cuttings. 

Properties of wood. — Soft, light, not strong, coarsegrained^ 
very durable in contact with soil. Specific gravity 0.4165; 
weight of a cubic foot 25.96 lbs. 

Uses. — The hardy Catalpa is not a very hardv tree in this 
section and probably most of the specimens of it growing 
north of central Iowa are more or less injured by our winters 
but they often hold on well in favorable locations as far north 
as St. Paul and Minneapolis and form good small trees. 
They are occasionally killed to the ground but generally re- 
new themselves by sprouts from the roots. The Catalpa is, 
however, unfit for a street tree in Minnesota; but may often 
be used in protected locations in i)arks and lawns, where it is 
yaluable for variety in foliage and for its beautiful flower 
clusters. It is of remarkably rapid growth when young and 
has been used in some of the most successful tree plantings 
that have been made in Kansas and southern Iowa. Tne wood 
is used for railway ties, fence posts and rails, and occasion- 
ally for furniture and inside finish of houses. 

The Hardy or Western Catalpa was for a long time con- 
founded with the Catalpa of the eastern states [C. hignonioides) 
which is not nearly so hardy. 

10 



290 



TREES OF MINNESOTA, 




Plate 60. Viburnum lentago. Sheepberry. 

.1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower. '6. Flow- 
er, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of flower, the corolla and stamens re- 
moved, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longitudinal 
section of fruit, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of seed. 8. Side view 
of stone. 9. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 



HONEYSUCKLE. 291 



C^P^RIFOLI^CE^E 



Honeysnckle Family. 

A family of a few hundred species, including such well- 
known plants as the common Elder (Sambucus), the Snow- 
berry (Symphoricarpus ) and the Honeysuckle (Lonicera). 

Genus VIBURNUM. 

Small trees or shrubs with simple opposite leaves. Flow- 
ers perfect or neutral; calyx equally five-toothed, persistent; 
corolla five-lobed: stamens five; ovary inferior, 1-celled. 
Fruit a dry or fleshy 1-seeded drupe; seed flattened. This 
genus includes the well-known Snowball, which is a sterile 
iorm of the Highbush Cranberry ( Viburnum opulus). 

Viburnuni lentago. Black Haw. Sheepberry. Nan- 
ny berry. 

Leaves ovate-acuminate, petioles usually winged. Flow- 
ers perfect, in flat clusters from 3 to 5 inches across, slightly 
fragrant, appearing the latter part of May or first of June in 
this section; corolla cream-colored or nearly white, i inch 
-across when open; filament thick; stigma broad. Fruit borne 
in drooping clusters, oval, about i inch long, sweet, juicy, 
black or dark blue, thick-skinned, covered with a glaucous 
bloom, ripens in September. Within our range a broad bush 
but occasionally a small tree. 

Distribution. — Quebec to the Saskatchewan and south to 
Georgia and Missouri. Usually found in moist locations, 
especially along river and lake shores, but not uncommon in 
thickets. 

Propagation. — By seed and by layers. The seeds should 
be stratified over winter before planting and often remains in 
the soil a year before starting. 



292 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard and close grained. Spe- 
cific gravity 0.7303; weight of a cubic foot 45.51 pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Haw is a good hardy ornamental shrub 
for park and lawn planting. It is esteemed for the abund- 
ance of its beautiful flowers, its vigorous growth, compact 
habit and its lustrous foliage, which takes on brilliant colors, 
in autumn. 



OLOSS^HY. 



^corn. The fruit of an oak. 

Acuminate. Taper-pointed or long-pointed, (e. g. leaves of Willow.) 

Acute. Pointed, (e. g. leaves of Cork Elm.) 

Albumen. Food stored up in seed with embryo; endosperm. 

Alternate leaves. A single leaf at a node; not opposite, (e. g: Willow.) 

Annual. Yearly; a plant which reaches maturity and dies at the end 
of a single season, (e. g. Pea, Wheat.) 

Annual ring. The layer of wood formed each year. (Page 7.) 

Anther. The pollen-containing sac; enlarged part of stamen. 

Apetalous. Without corolla, (e. g. Soft Maple. Oak.) 

Arboreous. Tree-like. 

Assimilation. In plants, the production of organic matter from in- 
organic matter. 

Axil. The angle formed by the junction of the ieaf-blade, bract, 
petiole, pedicle or peduncle, with the branch or stalk from 
which it springs. 

Back-firing. The burning under control of material in front of a fire 
to prevent its spreading. 

Bark. A general term applied to all the tissues outside of the wood 
proper. (Fig. 1.) 

Basal. Attached to the base. 

Bast. The woody fibrous tissue of the inner bark. (Page 279.) 

Berry. Botanically a fieshy fruit, (e. g. Grape, Currant.) Com- 
monly applied to many kinds of fruits, (e. g. Strawberry, 
Mulberry.) 

Blade of a leaf. The expanded portion; the wings. 

Blight. The dying without apparent cause of the tenderer purts of 
plants. 

B. M., Abbreviation for board measure, (q. v.) 

Board-foot. The unit of board-measure; equivalent to a board 12 in. 
X 12 in. X 1 in. One cubic foot is considered as equivalent to 
ten board feet, allowing for waste in working. 

Board-measure. (B. M.) The system used by lumbermen in which 
the board-foot (q. v.) is the unit. 



294 GLOSSARY. 

Bract. A much-reduced leaf. 

Budding. The operation and process of inserting a bud with the in- 
tention that it shall grow. 

Bud-division. A term includins: all methods of propagation except 
by seed. (e. g. Grafting, La3'ering, etc.) 

Bud-varietij . A strange variety or form appearing without obvious- 
cause upon a plant or in cuttings or layers; a sport. A bud- 
variety springs from a bUd in distinction from a seed-variety^ 
w^hich springs from a seed. 

Callus. The new and protruding tissue whichforms over a wound as 
over the end of a cutting. 

Calyx. Outer circle of perianth, generally inconspicuous. 

Cambium. In trees and shrubs, the layer of new growling tissue be- 
tween the bark and wood. 

Carbon dioxide. A gas composed of one part of carbon to two 
parts of oxygen; carbonic acid gas. 

Carpel. A simple pistil or one of the divisions of a compound pistil. 

Catkin, A scaly spike-like dense flower cluster. (e. g. Willow, 
Birch.) 

Cell. The anatomical unit of living tissues. 

Chlorophyll. The green coloring matter of plants; leaf-green. 

Ciliate. Hairy on the margin. 

Cleft leaf. Cut into lobes somewhat more than half the depth of 
wings, (e. g. Soft Maple.) 

Compound leaf. One in which the blade or wings are composed of 

more than one part. (e. g. Ohio Buckeye, Mountain Ash.) 
Cone. The flower or fruit of a conifer. 

Conifer. A member of the Pine Family or Coniferae. 

Coniferous. Cone-bearing. 
Cordate. Heart-shaped. 

Corolla. Inner series of the perianth; generally distinguished from 
the calyx by being of a color other than green. 

Corymb. A flat-topped flower cluster, in which the outer flowers 
open first, (e. g. Mountain Ash.) 

Cotyledon. One of the leaves of the embryo; a seed leaf. 

Crowded. Said of trees when so closeh^ grown that the development 
of their lateral branches is interfered with. (Fig. 11.) 

Crown of tree. See tree-crown. 

Cuttage. The practice or process of multiplying plants by means of 
cuttings. 

Cuttings. A piece of a leaf, branch, stem or root which when in- 
serted in moist material is capable of sending out roots and 
forming a new plant; a slip. (Page 93.) 

Cycle. One of the circles of a flower. 



GLOSSARY. 295 

Cymes. A flower cluster in which the central flowers open lirst. 

Deciduous. Falling off; said of leaves that fall in autumn. 

Dehiscent. Said of fruits that open at regular lines. 

Dentate. Toothed, with teeth pointing outward not forward. 

Diadelphous. Said of stamens when united into two groups. 

Dihher. A pointed instrument used for making holes. 

Dicotyledon. One of the class of plants with two seed leaves. 

Dicotyledonous. Having tw^o cotyledons or seed leaves. 

Dioecious. Staminate and pistillate flowers borne on different 

plants. 
Divided. Said of leaves when the wings are cut into divisions down 

to base or midrib. 
Disision. See bud-division. 
Drupe. A fruit with hard pit (endocarp) and soft exterior (exocarp). 

(e. g. Plum. Cherry, Peach.) 
Dry-rot. A kind of decay in wood. (Page 72.) 
Dust-blanket. A layer of loose earth on the surface of the ground. 
Embryo. The miniature plant in the seed. 
Evergreen. Holding leaves over winter until new leaves appear or 

longer. 
Family. In botanical classification, a group of plants thrown to- 
gether because of some natural common resemblances. Some- 
times used synonymously with order. 
Filament. The stalk of the stamen. 
Firebreak. An opening, plowed strip of land, or anything which 

prevents the spread of fires in forests or elsewhere. (Fig. 33.) 
Firefalls. Applied to areas where the trees have fallen owing to 

their roots having been burned off. 
Flower. A part of the plant especially modified for the reproduction 

of the plant by seed. 
Forest. A dense growth of trees. 
Forest floor. The decayed leaves and twigs which cover the soil in 

forests. (Page 18.) 
Frost-hardy. Said of trees, the new growth of which is not easily 

killed by frost. 
Frost-tender. Said of trees, the new growth of which is easily killed 

by frost. 
Fruit. The .seed-containing area derived from a single flovrer. 
Fungi. Plural of fungus. 
Fungous. Pertaining to fungi. 
Fungus. A flowerless plant devoid of chlorophyll and drawing its 

nourishment from living organisms or decayed organic matter. 
Genera. Plural of genus. 



296 GLOSSARY. 

-Generic name. The name of the genus to which |the plant belong^s 
and which with the name of the species forms the scientific 
name of the plant. 

■Genus. In botanical classification, a group of plants having seyeral 
or many natural common resemblances: a division of a family. 

Germination. The act or process by which a seed or spore gives rise 

to a new and independent plant. 
Glabrous. Smooth, not pubescent. 

Glaucous. Covered with a fine white powder as that on a cabbage 

leaf. 
Graftage. A system of propagation comprising all methods by 

which plants are grown on roots of other plants. 
Grafting. The operation of inserting a scion in a stalk. 
Grafting Wax. A protective substance used in covering the junction 

of a graft with the stock, or for the covering of wounds. 

Bailey's formula for a reliable wax: — Resin, four parts (by 

weight) beeswax, two parts; tallow, one part. Melt together 

and pour into a pail of cold water. Then grease the liands 

and pull the wax until ic is nearly white. 
Hardy. Able to withstand a given climate. 
Heeling-in. The operation and process of temporarily covering the 

roots of plants to preserve them until wanted for permanent 

planting. (Fig. 104.) 
Herb. A plant not Avoody. 
Herbaceous. Not woody; said of plants that die to the ground each 

year. 
Horticulture. The art and science of raising fruits, kitchen garden 

vegetables, flowers and ornamental trees and shrubs. 
Humjis. Decomposed organic matter in the soil. 
Hybrid. Plant derived from a cross between plants of different 

species. 
Hybridizing. The operation or practice of crossing between species. 
Hypogynous. Said of flowers when all parts are free. (e. g. Buckeye) 
Imbricated. Overlapped . 
Inarching. The operation and process of uniting contiguous plants 

or branches while the parts are both attached to their own 

roots. (Page 97.) 
Indehiscent. Not opening at regular lines; not dehiscent, 
Indigenous. Native, i. e, growing naturally in a given region. 
Inferior. Said of ovary when all the floral parts are attached above 

it, (e. g. Wild Crab.) 
Inflorescence. A flower cluster; mode of arrangement of flowers. 
Insecticide. A substance employed to destroy insects. 



GLOSSARY. 297 

Involucre. A bract or series of bracts subtending a flower-cluster or 

fruit-cluster. 
Irreg^jJar, Said of flowers when the separate parts of each cycle are 

not of the same size and shape, (e, g. Locust,) 
Lanceolate. Said of leaves when from four to six times as long as 

broad, the broadest part below the middle and tapering up- 
ward or both upward and downward, (e, g. Black Willow.) 
Larva, (pi, larvae) The worm-like stage of insects. 
Layer. A shoot which, while attached to the plant, takes root at 

one or more places and forms a new plant, (Page 96.) 
Leaf-mould. Decayed leaves and other organic matter constituting 

the forest floor. 
Leaflet. One of the wing divisions of a compound leaf. 
Legume. A simple pod opening by both ventral and dorsal sutures; 

fruit of pea family, (e. g, Locust.) 
Leguminous. Pertaining to the family Leguminosae; said of plants 

bearing legumes. 
Loam. Friable, mellow, rich soil containing much humus. 
Lohe. A projection or division of a leaf not more than half the depth 

of the wing. 
Lyrate. A pinnatifid leaf of an obovate or spatulate outline with 

the end lobe large and roundish and the lower lobes small, 

(e. g. Bur Oak.) 
Manure, Plant food; any substance which promotes plant growth. 
Monadelphous Said of stamens when united by their filaments in 

one group. 
Mono. Prefix meaning one. 
Monoecious. Both staminate and pistillate flowers borne on the 

same plant, (e, g. Black Walnut.) 
Mound-layering. (Page 96.) 
Mulch. Any loose material that protects the soil from frost or 

evapor^ition. 
Muskeg. A term commonly applied to sphagnum swamps by the 

Indians and woodsmen of northern Minnesota. 
Nursery. A plot of ground set apart for the raising of plants that 

are to be transplanted elsewhere. An establishment for the 

raising of plants. 
Ohcordate. The reverse of cordate. 
Oblanceolate. The reverse of lanceolate. 

Oblong. About twice as long as broad with nearly parallel sides. 
Obovate. The reverse of ovate. 

Obtuse. Blunt, not acute, (e, g, leaflets of Locust.) 
Odd-pinnate. Applied to pinnately compound leaves having a termi- 
nal leaflet, (e, g. Ash.) 



298 GLOSSARY. 

Open grown. Said of trees when not grown sufficiently close toother 

trees to be influenced by them. 
Ovary. The lower or enlarged part of the pistil bearing the ovules. 
Ovate. About twice as long as broad and t-ipering from near the 

base to the apex. (e. g. leaves of Balsam Poplar.) 
Ovoid. Egg-shaped. 
Ovule. A rudimentary seed. 
Palmate. Parts originatine: from a common point, as the veins, lobes 

or divisions of a leaf. (e. g. Leaflets of Ohio Buckeye.) 
Panicle. A loose flower cluster, (e. g. White Ash, Plate 57.) 
Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, applied to flowers of the pea fam- 
ily, (e. 2-. i^ocust, Plate 47.) 
Parasite. A plant or animal that lives upon and obtains its food 

from other living plants or animals. 
Parietal placenta. A placenta upon the wall of the ovary, (e. g* 

Coffee Tree Plate 46.) 
Parted. Separated nearly to the base. 
Pedicel. A stalk of a single flow^er of a flower cluster. 
Peduncle. A stalk of a solitary flower or the common stalk of a 

flower cluster. 
Pendulous. Hanging. 
Penta. Prefix, meaning five. 
Perennial. A plant living more than two years. 
Perfect flower. One having both essential organs i. e. stamens and 

pistil, (e. g. Wild Crab, Plate 40.) 
Perianth. The floral envelopes. 
Pericarp. The ripened ovary; the seed vessel. 
Persistent. Remaining beyond the period when such parts generally 

fall. 
Petal. One of the divisons of a corolla. 
Petiole. Leaf-stalk. 
Pinnate. Parts arranged on opposite sides of a main axis. (e. g. 

Leaflets of Mountain Ash.) 
Pinnatifld. Pinnately lobed or cleft, (e. g. leaves of Rcjd Oak, Plate 

33.) 
Pinnule. A secondary leaflet in a pinnately decompound leaf. (e. g. 

Honey Locust.) 
Pistil. The part of the flower bearing the ovules and which ripens 

into the fruit. 
Pistillate. Bearing pistils but no fertile stamens. Often used syn- 
onymously with female. 
Placenta. Place of attachment of ovules in an ovary. 
Pollen. Small spores produced by the anthers for the fertilization of 

the ovules. 



GLOSSARY. 299 

Pollination. The carrying- of pollen from the anther to the stigma. 
Polygamous. Perfect and unisexual flowers borne on the same plant. 
Pome. Fruit represented by the Apple, Thorn, Quince, etc. 
Propagation. The multiplication of plants. 

Pruning. The removing of branches from a plant to improve its 
general appearance or to check or encourage growth. 

Pubescent. Covered v^ith fine short hairs. 

Quarter sawing. The sawmg on the radius but as it is not practicable 
to do this exactly, the log is first quartered and then sawed 
into boards, cutting them alternately- from each face of the 
quarter of the log. Sawed in this way the grain of the v^ood 
does not show nearly so conspicuously and varied as in that 
tangentially sawed but the ^rain is narrower and the wood 
sawed in this way does not warp nearly so much as that tan- 
gentially sawed and is much more expensive. 

Raceme. A simple inflorescence in which the flowers are on pedicels 
and the low^er open first, (e. g. Black Cherry, Plate 44.) 

Regular. Parts of each cycle of the perianth alike, (e. g. Bird 
Cherr3^) 

Root. Apart of the plant which absorbs nourishment for the plant, 
or serves as a support. It may be underground or aerial. 

Root-cutting. See cutting. (Page 93.) 

Rudimentary. Imperfectly developed or in an early state of develop- 
ment. 

Samara. A winged fruit, (e. g. Maple.) 

Saprophyte. A plant which lives upon and obtains its food from 
dead organic matter. 

Sapwood. The outer or latest formed wood of a woody plant. 
(Page 8.) 

Sawing. The two methods used in sawing are termed tangential 
sawing and quarter sawing, q, v. 

Scion. The part inserted in the stock in the various processes of 
graftage. 

Seed. The body containing the embryo plant; the ripened ovule. 

Seedling. In nursery practice a young plant grown from seed and 
not having been transplanted. 

Seed variety. A variety that comes true from seed. 

Sepal. One of the divisions of the calyx. 

Serrate. Saw-toothed, (e. g. leaves of Balsam Poplar.) 

Sessile. Without stalk. 

Sheath. In pines, the case-like part surrounding the base of the 
needle cluster. 

Shruh. A woody plant with no main stem or trunk; a bush. 



300 GLOSSARY. 

Simple. Composed of one part; not compound. 

Sinuate. Strongly wavy. 

Sinus. An indentation. 

Solar Pit. (Fig. 16.) 

Spatulate. Shaped like a spatula; broadly rounded at the apex; 

tapering toward the base. 
Species. A division of a genus, the plants of which seem to be 

derived from an immediate common ancestor. 
Specific gravity. vVeight compared with distilled water at 4 degrees 

Centigrade. Where used here with reference to wood it refers 

to absolutely dry wood unless otherwise noted. 
Spike. A simple dense raceme-like inflorescence with flowers sessile 

or nearly so. 
Spore. A reproductive body, commonly applied to those borne by 

plants that do not produce seed. Analogous but not homolo- 
gous to a seed. 
Stamen. Pollen-bearing organ of a flower. 
Staminate. Said of flowers bearing stamens, but no pistils. Often 

used synonymously with male. 
Stem. The main axis or one of the main axes of a plant. It may be 

underground or aerial. Commonl}^ used in place of petiole, 

pedicel and peduncle. 
Sterile. Not fertile; not able to reproduce. 
Stigma. The part of the pistil upon which the pollen falls and 

germinates. 
Stipule. A leaf appendage at the base of the blade or petiole; not 

always present, (e. g. Black Willow.) 
Stock plants. Plants used to propagate from. 
Stoma, (pi. Stomata) Breathing pores of leaves. 
Stratification. A method of storing seeds with alternate layers of 

some other material as sand or leaves. (Page 88.) 
Strobilus or Strobile. A cone. (e. g. Pine, Lyco podium.) 
Stumpage. The standing timber. 

Style. The stalk, if present, that joins the stigma to the ovary. 
Sucker. A shoot from an underground root or stem; often applied to 

an adventitious shoot above ground. 
Sunscald. (Page 118. j 
Superior. Applied to ovary when attached on a level or above the 

other parts of the flower, (e. g. Ohio Buckeye.) 
Tangential sawing. The common way of cutting logs by which *;he 

boards on each side of the center board are sawed by a cut 

that is tangent to the annual rings. This method serves to 

bring out the grain of wood most conspicuously. 
Tap-root. A central root running deep into the soil. 



GLOSSARY. 301 

Tent-caterpiUars. Caterpillars that build silky-iike tents on trees 
and other plants. 

Thorn. A hardened sharp-pointed branch. 

Tomentose. Clothed with matted woolly hair. 

Top-worked. Said of trees that are grafted or budded at some dis- 
tance above the ground. 

Transpiration. The process by which water is taken up by the roots 
of plants and given off to the air through the leaves and 
branches. 

Tree. A perennial woody plant with a single stem which from 
natural tendencies generally divides into two or more branches 
at some distance from the ground. 

Tree-crown. That part of a tree that is branched, forming a head. 

Tree-digger. Ordinarinarily a plow-like implement having a sharp 
knife-like blade that is drawn through the soil bv a team and 
cuts the roots off the trees at a distance from the base of the 
tree-trunk. Where large quantities of trees are to be dug this 
is a most important implement. There are various kinds; one 
style cuts on both sides of the row at one time. 

TH. Prefix meaning three. 

Turgid. Distended; applied to leaves and other parts when filled 
with water. ^ 

Umbel. An umbrella-like form of inflorescence, (e. g. flower clusters 
of Caraway. Parsnip.) 

Unisexual. Bearing either male or female organs, not both, (e. g. 
flowers of Willows.) 

Variety. A distinct and valuable variation from the original. 
(Page 32.) 

Valve. One of the parts of a dehiscent pod. 

Valvate. Opening bv valves. 

Water capital. The entire water of the earth, 

Weed. A plant out of place, a generally troublesome plant, not of any 
appreciable economic value. 

Wlurrl. Applied to leaves when arranged in a circle around the stem. 

Wings of a leaf. The expanded portion; the blade. 

Windbreak. A single row or belt of trees, which serves as a protec- 
tion from wind. 

Wood. The hardened tissue of a stem. A forest. 



INDEX. 



Orders and families in small caps; genera in heavy face; synonyms 
in italics. Figure* in parenthesis indicate illustrations. 



Page. 
Abele 200 

Abies 159 

balsamea (160) 159 

concolor 161 

Acacia, False 258 

Threethorn 252 

ACERACEAE 259 

Acer 259 

Acer dasycarpum 265 

negundo (270) 271 

pennsylvanicum 269 

platanoides (262) 263 

" reitenbachii 264 

** schwedlerii 264 

rubrum (267) 266 

saccharinum (264) 265 

saccharum (260) 259 

spicatum ::...... 268 

tartaricum 269 

" ginnale 271 

.ffisculUS 272 

glabra (273) 274 

hippocastanum 272 

Alkali soils, Occur^ice 19 

Amelanchier 242 

alnifolia 243 

canadensis ... 242 

" abovalis 242 

American Aspen 190 

American Elm 224 

American Larch 146 

American Linden 277 

American Mountain Ash 238 

Annual rings 7 

Antiseptics 74 

Arborvitae (163) 162 

—Douglas Golden 164 

— Pyramidal 164 

—Siberian 164 

Ash— Black 285 

—Green 284 

— Ho op 7 



Page. 

I —Red 284 

I —Swamp 285 

I —White 283 

Ash-leaf Maple 271 

Aspect. Effect on growth ... 19 

Aspen (189) 190 

Assimilation 13 

Austrian Pine (144) 143 

Balm of Gilead 193 

Balsam Fir 159 

—Poplar (192) 191 

Bark 8 

Basket Willows 178 

Basswood 277 

Beech— Blue (211) 212 

— Water ., 212 

Bee-tree 277 

BETI]LACEAE 203 

Betnla 203 

Betula alba 205 

alba pendula laciniata 206 

lutea (207) 208 

nigra 206 

papyrifera (204) 205 

Bignoniaceae 287 

BiGNONiA Family 287 

Birch 203 

—Canoe (204) 205 

— Cutleaf Weeping 206 

-European White 205 

—Gray 208 

—Paper 205 

—Red 206 

—River 206 

— W^hite 205 

—Yellow (207) 208 

BIRCH Family 203 

Bird Cherry 247 

Birds, Injuries from 113 

Bitternut Hickory (176) 175 

Black Ash 285 

Black Cherry (250) 249 



INDEX. 



303 



Page. 

Black Haw 291 

Black Haw 243 

Black Locust 252 

Black Oak 223 

Black Pine 143 

Black Poplar 199 

Black Spruce (151) 150 

Black Thorn (244) 243 

Black Walnut (170) 169 

Black Willow (180) 179 

Blue Beech (211) 212 

Bolle Poplar 202 

Borers 112 

Box Klder 271 

Breed's Weeder, Use of 49 

Broken branches 119 

Buckeye Family 272 

Buckthorn 275 

— English : 275 

Buckthorn Family 275 

Buds 10 

Buildings on a Farm. Loca- 
tion of (51) (52) 49 

Bull Pine (140) 139 

Bur-Oak (219) 218 

Bur White Oak 218 

Butternut (173) 172 

Callousing 96 

Canoe Birch (204) 205 

CAPRIFOLIACEAE. 291 

Carolina Poplar 194 

Carpinns 212 

caroliniana (211) 212 

Carya alba 174 

amara 175 

Castanea 214 

dentata (213) 214 

Catalpa 

— speciosa (288) 287 

Cattle, Injuries from lis 

Cedar 162 

—Red (165) 166 

— White 162 

Celtis 230 

occidentalis (231) 230 

Certinensis Poplar 202 

Charring timber 74 

Cherry— Bird 247 

—Choke 251 



Page. 

—Pigeon 247 

—Pin.... 247 

—Rum , 249 

—Wild Black (250) 249 

—Wild Red (248) 247 

Chestnut (213) 214 

Chinook of the W^est 30 

Choke Cherry 251 

Clear plantings 44 

Coal-tar 74 

Coatings for Wood 74 

Cockspur Thorn 245 

Cofiee Tree 256 

Colorado Bine Spruce 152 

Coloring matter of wood 71 

Color of wood, a test of dur- 
ability 71 

Condition ol land in forests... 17 

Conifers 131 

raising from seed 87 

CONIFERAE 131 

Conservation, Elements of.... 32 

Cork Elm 226 

Cottonwood (195) 194 

— Goldenleaf 198 

— Narrowleaf..... 194 

— Yellow 194 197 

Covering of tree seeds 67 

Crab— Wild (237) 236 

— Western 236 

Crataegus 243 

coccinea 245 

crus-galli 245 

tomentosa (244) 243 

Crooked trees, Treatment of. 106 

Cultivating seedlings 89 

Cultivation 49, 64 

Curing w^ood 73 

Curtis, Production of a hot 

wind 39 

Cutleaf Weeping Birch 206 

Cutleaf Maple 266 

Cuttings 93 

Bunch of Willow (94) 94 

Cultivation 95 

Form and size 93 

Planting 94 

In solar pit (96) 95 

Source of 93 



304 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Time of planting 95 

Cutting of timber, Time 71 

Damping off of conifers 88 

Deal wood 14.1 

Decay in wood 70 

Dissipation, Elements of. 26 

Distance between trees .. 43 

of trees from buildings, etc.. 41 

Distribution of seeds 12 

water supplies 34 

Douglas Golden Arborvitae... 164 

Douglas Spruce 157 

Drouth, Injuries from 117 

Dry rot in wood 72 

Durability of fence posts 75 

Durability of wood 70 

Dwarf Juneberry 242 

Dwarf Juniper 167 

Dwarf Mountain Pine 145 

Eastern slope, Effect on 

growth 19 

Elaegnacae.... 281 

Elaeagnus 281 

Elaeagnus angustifolia 281 

Elderleaf Mountain Ash 240 

Blm— American (225) 224 

—Cork (227) 226 

— Moose 229 

"Red 229 

—Rock 226 

—Slippery (228) 229 

-—Water 224 

—White (225) 224 

Elm Family 224 

Elm Tree, Pruned (111) Ill 

Engelmann Spruce 153 

English Buckthorn 275 

European Basswood 279 

European I.arch 148 

European Linden 279 

— Mountain Ash 240 

—White Birch 205 

Evaporation from soil 27 

Evaporation in winter 15 

Evergreen seed bed C88) 88 

Evergreens, Sowing seed 87 

Transplanting 101 

Fagaceae 215 



Page. 

False Acacia 258 

Fence Posts, Table of Dur- 
ability .of 75 

Fetid Buckeye 274 

Fighting fires 126 

Fir— Balsam (160)... 159 

— Doug-las 157 

—Red 157 

—Silver 161 

—White 161 

Firebreak on sand dune (125) 1 24 

Firebreaks 124 

Fire-fall (122) 122 

Fire-law in Minnesota 124 

Fires in forests 119 

Causes 122 

Crown 120 

Prevention 123 

Spring , 122 

Summer and autumn 122 

Surface 120 

Underground 120, 126 

Flowers 11 

Foehn of Switzerland 30 

Food formation 13 

Forest fires 11 9 

Forest floor 18 

Forest influences , 21 

on disposal of water sup- 
plies 26 

on fogs and clouds 35 

on precipitation 25 

on water supplies 22 

on wind and hail storms... 35 

Forest management 53 

European system 57 

Forest, Primitive (55) 54 

Forest-pulled trees 99 

Forests, wind breaking power 

of. 28 

Fraxinus 281 

Americana (282) 283 

lanceolata 284 

nigra (286) 285 

pennsylvanica 284 

pubescens 284 

sambucifolia 285 

viridis 284 



INDEX. 



305 



Page. 

Freezing and thawing 114 

Frost cracks 115 

•' in Sugar Maple (117) 117 

Frost, Injuries from 115 

Frost-hardy trees 115 

Frost-tender trees 115 

Fruit 11 

Fuel, Price of 53 

value of woods 75 

values, Table of. 77 

Fungi in wood 70 

Fungus, Shelf (70) 70 

Gathering seeds 82 

Germination of seeds 82 

Girdling by mice 112 

Gleditsia 252 

triacanthos (253) 252 

Glossary 293 

Golden Arborvitae 164 

Goldenleaf Cottonwood 198 

Golden Willow 184, 185 

Gophers 113 

Grades of nursery stock 98 

Graftage 97 

Gray Birch 208 

Gray Pine 138 

Green Ash 284 

** seedlings. Bunch of, 99 
Growth of trees an index to 

value of land 17 

Growth on muskegs 59 

Gymnocladus 256 

canadensis 256 

dioicus (255) 256 

Hackberry (231) 230 

Hackmatack 14-6 

Hail storms, Forest influences 

on 35 

Hardiness, Tables of 47 

Hard Maple 259 

Hardy Catalpa 287 

Haw. Black 291 

—Black 243 

—Scarlet 245 

Heartwood 8 

Coloration 71 

Heaving out by trost (114)... 114 

Heavy-wooded Pine (140)... 139 



Page, 

Heeling-in (104) 103 

Heights of one-^ear-old seed- 
lings. Table of. 90 

Hemlock 156 

Hicoria 174 

minima (176) 175 

ovata 174 

Hickor5-— Bitternut (176) 175 

—Shagbark 174 

— Shellbark 174 

— Swamp 175 

HiPPOCASTANACEAE 272 

Honey i/ocust 252 

Honeysuckle Family 291 

Hoop Ash 285 

Hop Hornbeam (209) 210 

Hornbeam 212 

Horse Chestnut 572 

Hot winds 39 

Inarching 97 

Insects, Injuries from 111 

Interception of rainfall 26 

Improvement of land in for- 
ests 35 

Influence of forests 21 

Injuries to tree growth Ill 

Interception of water in for- 
ests 26 

Investments in timber 53 

Investments, Profits from...... 62 

Ironwood 210 

Jack Pine (137) 138 

JUGLANDACEAE 168 

Jnglans 169 

cinerea (173) 172 

nigra (170) 169 

Juneberry 212 

Juniper 

— Common 167 

—Dwarf. 167 

—Red 166 

—Swedish 168 

—Trailing 167 

Juniperus 164 

communis 167 

virginiana (165) 166 

Kentuckv Coffee Tree 256 



11 



306 



INDEX. 



Page. 
King's Experitnents with 

windbreaks 29. 30 

Knisely's experiments on 
evaporation from trees 

in wMnter 15 

Larch 146 

— A m erican 146 

—European (147) 148 

Largetooth Poplar 191 

Larix :i45 

americana 146 

europca(147) 148 

laricina 146 

Laurel-leaf Willow 186 

Law, Fire, in Minnesota 124 

Layers 96 

Leaves 10 

Leaves on conifers, Time they 

remain on trees 11 

Leguminosae 252 

LfCverwood 210 

Lice 112 

Life history of mature tree 60 

Light demanding trees 45 

Lime whitewash 74 

Linden — American ... 277 

— European 279 

Linden Family 277 

Location of buildings (51,52) 49 

Locust 258 

Black 252 

Common 258 

Honey (253) 252 

Yellow 258 

Lombardy Poplar 199 

Lumber industry in Minnesota 54 

Maple 259 

—Ashleaf 271 

— Cutleaf 266 

—Hard 259 

— Mountain 268 

— Norwny (262) 263 

—Red (267) 266 

— Reitenbach 264 

—Rock 259 

—Scarlet 266 

— Schwedler 264 

— Silver 265 



Page. 

—Silverleaf ' 265 

—Soft (264) 265 

—Striped; 269 

—Sugar (260) 259 

—Swamp 266 

—Tartarian 269 

— White 265 

— Wier's Cutleaf 266 

Maple Family.. 259 

Marketable timber 54 

Mechanical condition of land 

in forests 17 

Mice 112 

Mineral substances 14 

Mixed plantings 44 

Mixed plantings. List of trees 

for 46 

Moose Elm 229 

Moosew^ood 269 

MORACEAE 232 

Morus 232 

alba tartarica (234) 233 

rubra 233 

Mossycup Oak 218 

Mountain Ash 238 

—American 238 

— Elderleaf (239) 240 

—European 240 

— Oakleaf. 241 

—Weeping 241 

Mountain Maple 268 

Mulberry 232 

—Red 233 

—Russian (284) 233 

— Tea's weeping 235 

MULBERRY Family -. 231 

Mulching trees 108 

Muskegs, Growth on 59 

Nanny berry 291 

Napoleon Weeping Willow 188 

Narrowleaf Cottonwood 194 

Natural reseeding of timber 

lands 65 

Negundo aceroides 271 

Nettle Tree 230 

New American Weeping- Wil- 
low 188 

Northern slope, effect on 

growth 19 



INDEX. 



307 



Page. 

Norway Maple 263 

Norway Pine 134 

Norway Pine crowded and 

open grown [63] 63 

Norway Spruce 154 

Nursery 98 

Soil and Cultivation 98 

Work and Practice 98 

Nursery stock, Grades of 98 

Oak 215 

— Black 223 

—Bur (219) 218 

— Mossycup 218 

—Red [220] 221 

—Scarlet [222] 223 

-White [217] 216 

Oak Family 215 

Oakleaf Mountain Ash 241 

Odors of decaying wood 70 

Ohio Buckeye 274 

Oil paints 74 

Oleaceae 281 

Oleaster Family 281 

Olive Family 281 

Osier Willows 178 

Ostrya 230 

virginiana [209] 210 

Paper Birch 205 

Pasturing cattle in wood- 
lands 113 

Pea Family 252 

Picea 148 

alha 148 

canadensis [149] 148 

engelmanni 153 

cxcelsa 154 

mariana [151] 150 

nigra 150 

pungcns 152 

Peachleaf Willow 182 

Pigeon Cherry 247 

Pin Cherry 247 

Pine 131 

—Austrian [144] 143 

—Black 143 

—Bull [140] 139 

— Dwarf. 145 

— Dwarf Mountain 145 



Page. 

—Gray 138 

— Heavy-wooded 139 

—Jack (137) 138 

—Northern Scrub 138 

—Norway (135) 134 

—Red 134 

—Rock 139 

--Scotch (142) 141 

— Western Yellow 139 

--Western White.... 134 

— Weymouth 131 

—White (132) 131 

Pine Cuttings after being 

burned over (56) 56 

Pine Family 131 

Pinus 131 

banksiana 138 

divaricata (137) 138 

flexilis 134 

laricio austriaca (144) 143 

montana pumila 145 

tnughus 145 

ponderosascopuloruir (140) 139 

resinosa 135, 134 

strobus (132) 131 

sylvestris (142) 141 

Pit, Storing seeds in. 81 

Plans for home grounds 51 

Planting, Method of. 48 

Planting seedlings. Successive 

steps in 103 

Planting to renew timber 

growth 64 

Plum, W^ild 246 

Pocket Gopher 113 

Pollarding 66 

Poplar 188 

—Aspe/2 (189) 190 

—Balm of Gilead 193 

—Balsam (192) 191 

—Black 199 

— Bolle 202 

—Carolina 194 

—Certinensis 202 

— Largetooth 191 

— Lombardy 199 

—Silver 202 

—Snowy 200 

—White (201) 200 



308 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Populus 188 

alba (201) 200 

alba bolleana 202 

alba canescens 202 

alba nivea 200 

angu stifolia 194 

argentea 200 

balsamifera (192) 191 

balsamifera candicans 193 

balsamifera intermedia 193 

balsamifera latitolia 193 

balsamifera viminalis 193 

certinensis 202 

crispa 193 

deltoides (195) 194 

deltoides aurea 198 

dudleyi 193 

grandidenta 191 

laurifolia.. 202 

lindleyana 193 

monUifera 194 

nigra 199 

nigra italica 199 

nolesti pyratnidalis 194 

suaveolens 193 

salicifolia 193 

siberica pyramidalis 193 

treinuloides (189) 190 

Van Gertii 199 

wobsky 194 

Prairie planting 40 

Prairies, Why treeless 36 

Precipitation, Influence of 

forests on 25 

Profits from timber 62 

Propagation 80 

Protection from windbreaks 41 

Pruning, (109) 66, 104 

Directions for 105 

Purpose of 104 

Time for 105 

Prunus 246 

americana 246 

pennsylvanica (248) 247 

serotina (250) 249 

virginiana V 251 

Pseudotsuga 157 

douglasii 157 



Page. 

taxifolia 157 

Pyramidal Arborvitae 164 

Pyrus 236 

americana 238 

aucuparia 240 

aucuparia pendula 241 

coronaria 236 

hybrida 241 

ioensis (237) 236 

sambucifolia (239) 240 

Quaking Aspen 190 

Quarter sawing 299 

Quercus 213 

alba (217) 216 

coccinea (222) . .. 223 

macrocarpa (219) 218 

rubra (220) 221 

suber 216 

Rabbits, Injuries from 112 

Rate of increase on timber 59 

Red Ash 284 

Red Birch 206 

Red Cedar (165) 166 

Red Cherry 247 

Red Elm 229 

Red Fir 157 

Red Juniper 166 

Red Maple (267) 266 

Red Mulberry 233 

Red Oak (220) 221 

Red Pine 134 

Reitenbach Maple 204 

Renewing growth by sprouts 

and suckers 65 

Reseeding, Natural 65 

Rest period in plants 15 

Restocking forest land 64 

Rhamnaceae 275 

Rhamnus 275 

catharticus (276) 275 

Ripening of wood 115 

River Birch 206 

Robinia 258 

pseudacacia (257) 258 

Rock Elm 226 

Rock Maple 259 

Rock Pine 139 

^ockyMountaiu WhiteSpruce 153 



INDEX. 



309 



Page. 

Root growth, Extent of 9 

Root formation (9) 9 

Roots 8 

Roots on a forest grown 

Elm (100) 100 

rosaceae 236 

Rose Family 236 

Rot in w-ood 70 

Royal Willow^ , 185 

Rum Cherry 249 

Russell's Experiment, Effect 

of wMnd on evaporation... 29 
Russian Golden Willow^(185) 185 

Mulberry (234) 233 

Olive 281 

Salicacieae 177 

Salix 177 

acutifolia 186 

alba (183) 182 

alba britzensis 185 

alba regalis 185 

alba vittellina 184, 185 

amygdaloides (181) 182 

laurifolia 186 

lucida(187) 186 

napoleonis 188 

nigra (180) 179 

pentandra 186 

purpurea pendula 188 

recalls 182 

Sap wood 8 

Savin 166 

Sawflies, Injuries from Ill 

Scarlet Haw 246 

Maple 266 

Oak (222) 223 

Schenck's view on forest tax- 
ation 58 

Schwedler Maple 264 

Scotch Fir 141 

Scotch Pine 141 

Scrub Pine, Northern 13S 

Second growth 16 

Seed 12 

Seeding of timber lands 64 

Seeding trees 65 

Seedlings 98 

Cultivating 89 



Page. 

Seedlings, Height of one-vear 

old 90 

Seeds 80 

Amount to use 89 

Coniferous tree 86 

C o vering 89 

Distribution of. 12 

Dry 85 

Fleshy covered 85 

Gathering 82 

Germination of. 82 

Leguminous tree 86 

Nut 86 

Ripening in autumn 84 

Ripening in spring and Ear- 
ly summer 84 

Sources of. 8(» 

Sowing J 89 

Stratification of 83 

Variations from 82 

Seed variations 82 

Service-berry 243 

Service tree ;. 242 

Shade-enduring trees 45 

Shading ground in j^oungtim- 

ber 67 

Shaghark Hickory 174 

Shapes of trees i 2 

Sheepberry 291 

Shellbark Hickory 174 

Shelterbelts, Plans of. 51 

Shining willow 186 

Siberian Arborvitae 164 

Silver Maple 265 

Silverleaf Maple 265 

Silver Poplar 202 

Silver Spruce 152 

Size of trees 47 

Sleet storms, Injuries Jrom... 115 

Sleet storm, Trees after (116) 116 

Slippery Elm 229 

Slope, Effect on growth 19 

Snow crust. Injuries from 117 

Snowy Poplar 200 

Soft Maple 265 

Soft Maple, pruned and un- 

pruned 109 

Soil conditions 16 



310 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Soil, Growth an index to 17 

Soil, Improvement of in wood- 
lands 14 

Soils, Alkali : 19 

Soils, Washing of. 18 

Solar pit 95 

Southern slope, effect on 

growth 20 

Sowing seed 89 

Specific gravities. Table ot 77 

Spring growth of wood 14 

Spruce — 

Black (151) 150 

Colorado Blue 152 

Double 150 

Douglas (158) 157 

Engclmaun 153 

Norway (155) 154 

Rocky Mountain White 152 

Silver 152 

White (149) 148 

Stratification 83 

Street trees 99. 107 

Distance apart 107 

Kinds to plant 107 

Mulching 108 

Planting 108 

Protection 110 

Pruning 109 

Watering 108 

Subsoil 18 

Succession of tree growth 68 

Sugarberry 230 

Sunscald 118 

Sunscalded Soft Maple and 

Basswood (118) 118 

Suscutan berry 242 

Swamp Ash 285 

Swamp Hickory 174 

Swamp Maple 266 

Swedish Juniper 168 

Tables- 
Durability of fence posts.. .. 75 

Height of one-year-old seed- 
lings 90 

Length of time leaves of 
conifers are persistent 11 



Page. 
Specific gravities and fuel 

values 77 

Transpiration 232 

Tacamahac 191 

Tamarack 146 

Tangential sawing 300 

Tartarian Maple 269 

Taxes on timber lands 58 

Tent caterpillars. Ill 

Thinning 49, 67 

Thorn— Bin ck (244) 243 

— Cockspur 245 

—White 245 

Threethorn Acacia 252 

Thuja 161 

occidentalis(163) 162 

occidentalis aurea 164 

occidentalis fastigiata .. 164 

occidentalis pyramidalis 164 

occidentalis wareana 164 

occidentalis sibirica 161 

Tilia 277 

americana (278) 277 

platyphyllos.. 279 

vulgaris 279 

Tiliacae 277 

Timber famine, Possibility of 

a, in Minnesota 54 

Timberlands, Management of .58 

Timber lands, Taxes on 58 

Trailing- Juniper 167 

Transpiration 13, 31 

Transplanting 99 

evergreens 101 

Time uf. 101 

Transplants 99 

Tree. The 7 

Influences of a 21 

Tree planting 40 

Trees for mixed plantings, Li>t 

of 47 

Trees, Growth in 59 

Shape of. 12 

Tsuga 156 

canadensis 156 

Ulmaceae 224 

Ulmus.. 224 

americana (225) 224 



INDEX. 



311 



Page. 

fulvR 229 

pubcscens (228) 229 

racemosa (227) 226 

Undergrowth in forests 13 

Variations from seeds 82 

Viburnum 291 

lentago (291) 290 

Virgin forest. Contents of.... 54 

Walnut. Black.. (170) 169 

Walnut Family 168 

Washing ot soils 19 

Waste in forests... 68 

Water, A mount transpired. 13 31 

Water Beech 212 

Water Capital, Circulating... 23 

Water Capital, Fixed 23 

Water discharged by Rhone... 23 

Water, Distribution of. 24 

Water Elm 224 

Water supplies, Forest influ- 
ences on 26 

Water supply in soils 16 

Water table in land. Height 

of. 37 

Weeping Birch, Cutleaf 206 

Weeping Mountain Ash 241 

Western Catalpa 287 

Western slope, effect on 

growth 20 

Western White Pine 134 

Western Yellow Pine 139 

Weymouth Pine 131 

White Ash 283 

White Birch 205 

White Cedar 162 

White Elm 224 

White Maple 264 

White Oak 216 

White Pine 131 

Crowded and then open 

grown (63) 63 

In Minnesota 50 

Largest cut in Minnesota... 59 

Largest yield in Minnesota.. 59 

Open grown (62) 61 

Western 134 

White Poplar 200 

White Spruce 148 

White Thorn 245 



Page. 

Whitewash 74 

White Willow 182 

White Wood 277 

Why prairies are treeless 36 

Wier's Cutleaf Maple 266 

Wild Black Cherry 249 

Wild Crab 236 

Wild Pium 246 

Wild Red Cherry 247 

Willow 

— Almondleaf. 182 

—Black (180) 179 

— Common Golden 184 

—Laurel-leaf. 186 

—Napoleon.... 188 

— New American Weep- 
ing- 188 

- Osier 178 

- Pcachleaf (181) 182 

—Royal 185 

— Russian Golden 185 

—Shining (187) 186 

-.White(183) 182 

— Wisconsin Weeping. 179 

Willow Family 177 

Windbreaking power o( for- 
ests 28 

Windbreaks of White Wil- 
low (43) 43 

Windbreak, White Willow, 

Injured by saw-fly (112).. Ill 

Windbreaks — 

Height ot 42 

Location of. 41 

Protection from 41 

Trees for 42 

Wind injuries 116 

Winds, Hot 38 

Wind storms, Forest influ- 
ences on 35 

Winter drouth 15 

Winter injuries 114 

Wisconsin Weeping Willow.... 179 

Woody stem cross section (7) 7 

Yearly round of life in a tree 14 

Yellow Birch 208 

Cottonwood 197 

Locust 258 

Pine, Western 139 



Page 13, head line, for The Growth, read Tree Growth. 
Page 23, 8th line, for has, read had. 
Page 23, 9th line, for remains, read remained. 
Page 43, title to figure 3, for Coteaux, read Coteau. 
Page 48, 3d line, for seedlings, read seedling. 
Pasre §8, 3d line, leave out the word more. 
Page 60, 37th line, for hade mad, read had made. 
Page 66, 23d line, for practically, read practically. 
Page 71, 4th line, for and are, read when. 
Page 80, 21st line, for desicable, read desirable. 
Page SI, 34th line, for cold, read mild. 
Page 84, 4th line, for Red Elm, read Slippery Elm. 
Page 84, 17th line, for and, read or. 
Page 85, 20th line, for Hard Maple, read Sugar Maple. 
Page 117, Figure 29 is upside down. 
Page 118, 9th line, for Hard, read Sugar. 
Page 121, 15th line, for $100,000, read $100.00. 
Page 185, 30th line, for Sails, read Salix. 

Page 194, 3d line, for Nolesti and Wobsky, read nolesti and 
wobsk^'. 

Pa£:e 214. 18th line, insert (C. ameHcana) after Castanea dentata. 

Page 284, 21st line, for veridis, read viridis. 

Page 302, last line of index, for —Hoop 7, read —Hoop 285. 



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